, “compulsion, coercion”, as opposed to ik̲h̲tiyār , “freedom of choice”. Although the term itself, in its maṣdar form, does not belong to the language of the Ḳurʾān, the verbal use of the VIIIth form is of relatively frequent occurrence there. The idea is that of an absolute necessity ( ḍarūra ), by me…

, Muṣliḥ al-Dīn Muṣṭafā b. Yūsuf, born into a well-to-do family in Bursa, was one of the leading Ottoman scholars of the 9th/15th century. Among others he studied with K̲h̲i̊ḍr Beg [ q.v.], and began his career as ḳāḍī in Ḳasṭal under Murād II [ q.v.]. After 857/1453 he was appointed a private teacher of M…

, ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn ʿAlī b. Muḥammad, important religious scholar of the 9th/15th century. He grew up in Iran (in Samarḳand, according to al-Suyūṭī [ q.v.]), where he also finished his studies. During the reign of the Ottoman Sultan Murād II [ q.v.…

, Abu ’l-Muṭarrif Aḥmad b. ʿAbd Allāh al-Mak̲h̲zūmī , writer, poet and judge, who was born in Valencia (Spain) in Ramaḍān 580/Decemb…

, K̲h̲ilāfat movement , a politicoreligious movement in British India, manifesting itself in the years after the First World War. On the one hand, it had its roots in Pan-Islamism, which came to the fore about 1900. On the other hand, is was stimulated by nationalism [see ḳawmiyya. In Muslim India and Pakistan]. Turkey’s defeat in the First World War spelt serious danger to the position of the Ottoman Sulṭān-K̲h̲alīfa. Would his power remain great enoug̲h̲ to protect Islam? Would the Holy Places of Islam remain under his severeignty (or at l…

, Abu ’l-Walīd Sulaymān b. Ḵh̲alaf, a distinguished theologian and literary figure in 11th-century Spain. Born in 403/1012 of a family from Baṭalyaws (Badajoz) which had emigrated to Bād̲j̲a, modern Beja in S. Portugal (Ibn Bassām, cited Maḳḳarī, Analectes , i, 511), he frequented the schools at Cordova, gained some success as a poet and in 426/1035 travelled to the East. He was absent from Spain for 13 years, three of which he spent at Mecca, in tbe service of the ḥāfiẓ Abū D̲h̲arr al-Harawī, who had been educated at Harāt, Balk̲h…

, the appointed term of a man’s life or the date of his death; a topic regularly discussed in the earlier kalām along with that of rizḳ or sustenance. The idea that the date of a man’s death is fixed presumably belongs to pre-Islamic thought. The word ad̲j̲al is used in the Ḳurʾān in a variety of ways, e.g. for the date when the embryo emerges from the womb (xxii, 5), for the period Moses had to serve for his wife (xxviii, 28 f.), for the date when a debt is due (ii, 282), etc. In creating the heavens and earth, the sun and moon, God fixed an ad̲j̲al for them (xlvi, 3; xxxix, 5 etc.); with this is con…

, the third of the salāṭīn al-s̲h̲arḳ , the name given to the rulers of the state of D̲j̲awnpur [ q.v.], regnabat 804-44/1402-40. He and his elder brother Mubārak S̲h̲āh ‘Ḳaranful’, whom he succeeded on the D̲j̲awnpur throne, were the adopted sons of the eunuch Malik Sarwar, the first sultan, and they are generally supposed to have been Ḥabs̲h̲īs [ q.v.]. Ibrāhīm succeeded to a kingdom of consider…

, Abu ’l-ʿAbbās Yaʿḳūb b. Aḥmad, scholar and writer, probably a S̲h̲īʿī, of whom we unfortunately know very little. The S̲h̲īʿī authors of the 5th/11th century, in particular, al-S̲h̲arīf al-Raḍī, compiler of the Nahd̲j̲ al-balāg̲h̲a [ q.v.] (d. 405/1015 [ q.v.]), and biographers like Ibn al-Nadīm (d. 438/1046), al-Nad̲j̲ās̲h̲ī (d. 450/1058) and al-Ṭūsī (d. 460/1067), do not have a single word about al-Ṣaymarī or his work. Moreover, there were occasions for this. As far as is known, the sole piece of information about him which we possess is owed to Ibn Abi ’l-Ḥadīd, commentator on the …

(S̲h̲ayk̲h̲) S̲h̲araf al-Dīn Pānīpatī , one of the most venerated of Indian saints, is believed to have died in 724/1324. There is little authentic information about his life and none of the surviving contemporary works even mention him by name. The earliest reference to him is in ʿAfīf’s Taʾrīk̲h̲-i Fīrūz-S̲h̲āhī (written in 800/1396), wherein Sulṭān G̲h̲iyāt̲h̲ al-Dīn Tug̲h̲luḳ’s visit to him is recorded. According to the accounts of his life written in the 11th/17th century, he was a native of Pānipat, to which place h…

…

, Abū ʿAbd al-Raḥmān, minor poet of the ʿAbbāsid period, d. 250/864. A mawlā of the Banū Layt̲h̲, which attached itself to Kināna, he was born and grew up at Baṣra. Before arriving at Sāmarrā, he had written no poetry. He seems to have received a double education: as a secretary, which enabled him to fill what were probably minor functions, and as a mutakallim , in which discipline he was said to be a disciple of Ḥusayn al-Nad̲j̲d̲j̲ār [ q.v.]. He is said to have been…

, Gehenna (Hebrew gēhinnōm , valley of the Gehenna); the Arabic word evokes etymologically the idea of “depth” (cf. infernus ). Used very often in the Ḳurʾān as a synonym of nār (“fire”), d̲j̲ahannam must accordingly be rendered by the general idea of Hell. The same is true in traditions. Exegetists and many treatises on kalām (or taṣawwuf ) were, subsequently, to give it a particularized connotation. The description of the Muslim Hell, the problems relating to it and consequently the references to verses in the Ḳurʾān mentioning d̲j̲ahannam, are considered in the article nār: here only its restricted sense is considered. Here ¶ are two examples from among the most familiar: 1. Some traditionists like al-Bag̲h̲awī, with an extremely literal and uncritical outlook, considering the precise wording of the dialogue ( …

, al-(sing. Baḳmī), a tribe in Western Arabia, traditionally held to be descended from al-Azd. Although considered a Ḥid̲j̲āzī tribe, the Buḳūm range over the region east of al-Ṭāʾif and in the vicinity of the lava fields of Ḥarrat Ḥaḍn and Ḥarrat al-Buḳūm, where the boundaries between the Ḥid̲j̲āz and Nad̲j̲d are not clearly defined. The tribe is estimated to have close to 10,000 people, of whom less than half are nomads. For at least several centuries a majority of the Buḳūm have bee…

1.—Origins. The origins of falsafa are purely Greek; the activity of the falāsifa [ q.v.] begins with Arabic translations of the Greek philosophical texts (whether direct or through a Syriac intermediary). Thus falsafa\appears first as the continuation of φιλοσοφία in Muslim surroundings. But this definition leads at once to a more precise formulation: since strictly orthodox Sunnī Islam has never welcomed philosophic thought, falsafa developed from the first especially among thinkers influenced by the sects, and particularly by the S̲h̲īʿa; …

, Abū ʿAlī Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Wahhāb , one of the most celebrated of the Muʿtazila [ q.v.]. Born at Ḏj̲ubbā in K̲h̲ūzistān, he attended the school at Baṣra of Abū Yaʿḳūb Yūsuf al-S̲h̲aḥḥām who at that time occupied the chair of Abu ’l-Hud̲h̲ayl al-ʿAllāf. He succeeded al-S̲h̲aḥḥām. and it can be said that he was able to add a final brilliance to the tradition of the masters, while at times he refreshed it and opened the way to new solutions. He died in 303/915-6. He thus holds a place in the line of the Baṣr…

, name of a Turkish tribe in Persia. In particular, the name refers to the ruling faroily of the Ḳarā-Ḳoyūnlū federation of Türkmen tribes (also called Bārānī). It is most probable that the name (“those of Bahār”) is connected with the village of Bahār (Ibn al-At̲h̲īr, x, 290: W. hān , read Vahār ) situated at 13 kms. north of Hamadān. According to Ḥamd Allāh Mustawfī, Nuzha…

, choice. For the use of the word as a juridical term, see k̲h̲iyār and naṣṣ ; in literary criticism, see naḳd ; in the sense of “elder”, see s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ . The immediately following article deals with the philosophical and theological senses of the word. As a philosophical term, ik̲h̲tiyār means free preference or choice, option, whence: power of choice, free will. The word itself is not Ḳurʾānic but is common in the vocabulary of ʿilm al-kalām and fiḳh. The VIIIth form of the verb is, however, used in the Ḳurʾān, always referring to a divine act. “I have chosen you ( ik̲h̲tartuka )”, s…

take their name from Muḥammad b. ʿĪsā the secretary, who was called Burg̲h̲ūt̲h̲ (Ar. = flea). They hived off from the Nad̲j̲d̲j̲āriyya [ q.v.], holding with them that God has a nature ( māhiyya ), that His attributes only tell what He is not (generous says that He is not stingy) and He always knew what would happen. Peculiar to the Burg̲h̲ūt̲h̲iyya is the doctrine that God always ¶ speaks from His self or essence, i.e., that speech is an attribute of His essence, though a report says that according to them His speech is action ( lahu kalām faiʿlī ) whence it was conclude…

, surname of the Moroccan holy man whose complete name is Abū Zayd ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. ʿAyyād al-Ṣanhād̲j̲ī al-Farad̲j̲ī al-Dukkālī. He came originally from Tīṭ, in the district of Azemmūr, but lived in Fās, where one of his disciples was in particular Abū ’l-Maḥāsin Yūsuf al-Fāsī, whose great-grandson, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. ʿAbd al-Ḳādir [see al-Fāsī, in Suppl.] left behind a work called Ibtihād̲j̲ al-ḳulūb bi-k̲h̲abar al-s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Abi ’l-Maḥāsin wa-s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ihi al-Mad̲j̲d̲h̲ūb …