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[German Version] The Vikings were marauding seafarers from Scandinavia, who plagued large sections of Europe from ¶ the 8th century to the 11th century. Swedes descended on Novgorod and Kiev via the Gulf of Finland, advancing as far as the Black Sea (Varangians). Norwegians conquered Scotland and the northern and eastern parts of Ireland, settled Iceland, and sailed as far as Greenland, Newfoundland, and Nova Scotia. Danes settled between the mouths of the Oder and Vistula and landed on the southern and eastern …

[German Version] is a form of Christian devotion centered on the passion and crucifixion of Jesus (Passion/Passion traditions). Commemoration of the end of Jesus’ life was always a living presence in the Christian community – despite the criticism of his manner of death by Jews and pagans (1 Cor 1:23), which in turn fostered the Christian interpretation of the cross (Cross/Crucifixion) as a trophy while also discouraging iconographic representation of the crucifixion until the early 5th century. E…

[German Version] I. History of the Discipline – II. Church History I. History of the Discipline Geography has come a long way from its beginnings in the mythical worldview (ANE creation accounts, early Greek philosophical speculation) and in the pragmatic exploration of the world (travel reports of merchants) to its development as an exact science. In antiquity, it was understood as a comprehensive lore of the earth and its inhabitants. The earliest accounts took the form of descriptions of coasts (Periplus et al.), which were soon joined by geographic and ethnographic excu…

[German Version] Genoa is the capital of the Liguria region and a major Italian port on the Gulf of Genoa, on the southern escarpment of the Ligurian Apennines (1998: 642,000 inhabitants). Settled since the 5th century bce by the Ligurians, then a Roman municipium, whose first Christian bishop is attested in 381 ce (it belonged to Milan until 1133, since then an archdiocese). Already a center of trade in the 6th century, the now wealthy Genoa came in the 11th century into competition with Pisa, emerging victorious, after a long struggle, in 1284.…

[German Version] (Jan 31, 1911, Avesnes, France – Oct 27, 1993, Clervaux, Luxembourg), a Benedictine monk, was one of the most prolific medievalists of the second half of the 20th century. Having studied in Rome and Paris, he also lectured in various places (esp. in Rome). In 1941, after conducting research on the Scholasticism of the 13th to 15th centuries, Leclercq turned to the partly still unpublished monastic literature of the Middle Ages, especially of the 11th and 12th centuries. His extens…

[German Version] (of Milan; died 1278/1281, Milan). The only source for her life is the record of the trial of Wilhelmina and her followers conducted posthumously in 1300 by the Inquisition; it indicates that ¶ she was from Bohemia and was of noble birth. We know nothing of her life before her arrival in Milan between 1260 and 1270, but she is said to have had a son. In that period, numerous religious dissidents were living in Milan, which was shaken not only by conflicts with other cities of northern Italy and internal partisan …

[German Version] 1. Those who belong to a convent (Lat. conventus), i.e. all the full members of a religious community at a specific location. 2. In the context of a particular monastic way of life, and especially among the mendicant orders, “conventuals” refers to that group or tendency within the order which continues to follow the “old observance” (usually in a previously mitigated form) in the midst of internal disputes over the proper observance of the rule, and which accordingly …

[German Version] From the late 14th century, reforming groups or tendencies within monasticism (III, 4.b), especially in the mendicant orders and most especially among the Franciscans, were called observants ( observantes, fratres de observantia etc.). In internal debates ¶ about the right way of life, they opposed easing of the rule and other kinds of adaptation that had crept in (Conventuals), and advocated strict following of the rules as rigorously interpreted, together with other prescriptions ( observantia regularis etc., Observance). In this, restoration of the vita commu…

[English Version] (gest. ca.1205/1218). Die spärliche Überlieferung erlaubt nur wenige sichere Aussagen über V.; ein Taufname (Petrus) wird nicht vor der 2. Hälfte des 14.Jh. genannt. Der wohlhabende Bürger aus Lyon scheint ca.1176/77 durch die Alexius-Legende oder in die Volkssprache übers. Bibeltexte zu einem apostolischen Leben bekehrt worden zu sein. Ob dabei dem Armutsideal oder dem Wunsch nach Predigttätigkeit Priorität zukommt, ist umstritten. Nach Versorgung seiner Frau und seiner beiden T…

[English Version] . Sätze von inhaltlicher Bedeutung und autoritativem Charakter (griech. γn̆ω´μη/gnō´mē [seit Sophoc. Aias 1091] neben spezielleren Begriffen; lat. sententia [seit Cicero]) wurden schon in vorchristl. Zeit in lit.-rhetorischer Funktion verwendet und später zu bequemerem Gebrauch gesammelt (Gnomologion, verwandt mit Anthologia [Florilegium], z.B. Μεn̆α´n̆δρου γn̆ω˜μαι μοn̆ο´στιχοι/Menándrou gnō´mai monóstichoi [wohl im 2.Jh. v.Chr. begonnen und bis in byz. Zeit fortgeführt] oder Σε´ξτου γn̆ω˜μαι/Séxtou gnō´mai [um 200 n.Chr.]). In den trin…

[English Version] I. Universität 1. Die U.T. wurde 1477 im Verlauf der sog. »zweiten Gründungswelle« dt. U. durch Graf Eberhard im Bart als württembergische Landesuniversität im südlichen Teil des ehemals zweigeteilten Landes gegründet (päpstl. Privileg 1476, kaiserliche Bestätigung 1484). Zur materiellen Absicherung der Professuren verlegte der Graf acht der zehn Chorherrenpfründen und zwei Drittel der Einkünfte des Säkularkanonikerstifts Sindelfingen an die Pfarrkirche St. Georg von T., führte ab…

[English Version] (Manducator; frühes 12.Jh. Troyes – 1178/79 Paris). Nach Studien in Troyes (hier seit 1147 Dekan der Kathedrale und Kanoniker des Stifts St. Loup), Tours und Paris wurde er 1159 Nachfolger seines Lehrers Petrus Lombardus an der Domschule von Paris, 1168 Kanzler von Notre-Dame. In seinen letzten Jahren lebte er im Chorherrenstift St. Victor. Aus seiner Lehrtätigkeit sind zahlreiche – meist ungedr. – Werke erhalten: Glossen (Glossa ordinaria) zu den Evv., zum Ps.-Komm. und (erstmal…

[English Version] . Patrozinium ist das in der Regel durch eine Weihehandlung begründete geistl. Eigentums- und Herrschaftsverhältnis sowie die daraus folgende Schutzfunktion eines Patrons (meist eines Heiligen) über eine Kirche oder einen Altar, ein Land, eine Stadt oder ein Bistum, eine Personengruppe (sozialer Stand, adelige Familie, Beruf, Zunft, Bruderschaft, Universität, Kloster, Orden u. ä.) oder über eine einzelne Person. Als Gegenleistung für seinen Schutz wird dem Patron durch die Gläubi…

[English Version] 1.  Giovanni (24.2.1463 Mirandola bei Modena – 17.11.1494 Florenz). Der Sohn des Grafen von Mirandola studierte seit 1477 Kirchenrecht, artes liberales, Philos. und Lit. v.a. in Bologna, Ferrara, Padua, Paris und Perugia. Neben Griech. lernte er auch Hebr. und Arab. Wiederholt besuchte er Florenz, wo er sich mit Lorenzo de' Medici und seinem Kreis anfreundete, bes. mit Marsilio Ficino, Angelo Poliziano (1454–1494) und Girolamo Benivieni (1453–1542). Nachdem er sich in wenigen Jahre…

[English Version] I. Zu Begriff und Wertung Das Subst. »Sch.« wird seit dem Aufkommen einer hist. Erforschung des MA im 19.Jh. als Sammelbegriff für eine bestimmte Art wiss. Arbeitens (bes. in Philosophie [: II.] und Theol. des MA) gebraucht. Das zugrundeliegende Adj. »scholastisch« (sch.) hat eine bis zu Aristoteles (pol., e.N.) zurückreichende Gesch. Die für den modernen Gebrauch von Sch. entscheidende Konzentration von griech. σχολαστικο´ς/lat. scholasticus auf den Bereich von Unterricht und Wiss. (»zur Schule gehörend«, »gebildet« u. ä.) vollzog sich s…

[English Version] von Auxerre (nach 841 – 2.5. wohl 908 Paris), Mönch des Klosters St. Germain in Auxerre, hier auch Nachfolger seines Lehrers Heiricus, ca.893 an der Erneuerung der Schule von Reims tätig, seit 900 Lehrer in Paris. Vf. mehr als 20 im MA viel gelesene, aber meist ungedr. gebliebene Werke: Komm. zu antiken und frühma. Grammatikern und Dichtern, zu Gen und Pss, zu Boet.cons. und Opuscula sacra sowie eine Meßerklärung. Ulrich Köpf Bibliography L'école carolingienne d'Auxerre, hg. von D. Iogna-Prat/C. Jeudy/G. Lobrichon, 1991.

[English Version] heißen heute sieben im Umkreis (suburbium) Roms liegende Diözesen, die meist eine wechselvolle Gesch. hatten: Albano, Frascati (an Stelle von Tusculum, das als Nachfolger von Labicum 1058–1197 faktisch und bis 1537 nominell Bischofssitz war), Ostia, Palestrina, Porto (durch Calixtus II. mit Santa Rufina [Silva Candida] vereinigt), Sabina (durch Eingliederung des Bistums Nomentum in das Bistum Forum Novum entstanden, 1925 mit Poggio Mirteto vereinigt), Velletri (1150 mit Ostia ver…

[English Version] (1095/1100 bei Novara, Lombardei – 21./22.7.1160 Paris). Nach Studien in Oberitalien und Reims kam P. um 1135 als Außenseiter nach Paris, wo er schon um 1145 zu den bedeutendsten Lehrern der Domschule gehörte. Am 28.7.1159 wurde er zum Bf. von Paris geweiht, konnte sich in diesem Amt aber nicht profilieren. Aus seiner Lehrtätigkeit gingen hervor: Glossen (Glossa ordinaria) zu den Psalmen (PL 191, 55–1296) und zu den Paulusbriefen, auch als »magna (maior) glossatura« bez. (PL 191,…

[English Version] heißen die räuberischen Seefahrer aus Skandinavien, die vom 8. – 11.Jh. weite Teile Europas heimsuchten. Schweden drangen über den Finnischen Meerbusen, Novgorod und Kiev bis zum Schwarzen Meer vor (Waräger). Norweger eroberten v.a. Schottland und den Norden und Osten Irlands, besiedelten Island und fuhren bis Grönland, Neufundland und Neuschottland. Dänen setzten sich zw. Oder- und Weichselmündung fest und landeten im Süden und Osten Englands sowie an der Mündung von Rhein, Sche…

[English Version] . Die echte, nicht »rhetorische«, sondern auf eine problemlösende Antwort abzielende Frage (griech. ζη´τημα/zē´tēma, προ´βλημα/pro´blēma, α᾿πορι´α/apori´a, lat. quaestio) ist ein elementares Mittel rationaler Argumentation. Sie begegnet schon in vorchristl. Zeit bei den Griechen (seit dem sokratischen Fragen des platonischen Dialogs) wie im rabb. Judentum (im Gespräch zw. Lehrer und Schüler). Das Formulieren von Fragen wurde schon früh in der altkirchl. Theol. üblich (erster Höhepunkt bei Au…

[English Version] I. Mittelalter Valdesi, d.h. Anhänger des Bürgers Valdes von Lyon, treten erstmals auf dem III. Laterankonzil 1179 ins Licht der Gesch.; dort baten sie vergeblich um Erlaubnis zu freier Predigt. 1180 beschworen Valdes und seine Gefährten (fratres) auf einer Synode in Lyon ein orth. Glaubensbekenntnis und verpflichteten sich zu einem Leben nach den Evangelischen Räten. Damit hatte sich die Gemeinschaft der »Armen von Lyon« öfftl. vorgestellt, die – wie andere rel. Bewegungen des 12…

[English Version] (1. Hälfte 12.Jh. Hosdenc bei Beauvais – 1197 Zisterzienserabtei Longpont bei Soissons). Nach Studien an der Domschule von Reims vor 1173 Kanoniker und Magister, seit 1183 auch Cantor an Notre-Dame von Paris. Die Wahl zum Bf. von Paris 1196 nahm P. nicht an. 1197 zum Dekan des Domkapitels von Reims gewählt, starb er auf der Reise dorthin. Von seiner Lehrtätigkeit zeugen zahlreiche, z.T. noch ungedruckte Werke: Glossen zum AT und NT; »Distinctiones« oder »Summa Abel« (Lexikon bibl…

[English Version] (gest.10.9.1279 in Viterbo). Erstes sicheres Datum aus seinem Leben ist seine Wahl zum Provinzialmagister der engl. Dominikaner im September 1261. Von hier aus lassen sich frühere Daten erschließen: in den 30er Jahren Studium an der Pariser Artistenfakultät, ca.1237 M.A., Lehrtätigkeit in Paris bis Mitte der 40er Jahre, dann Rückkehr nach England und Eintritt in den Predigerorden, Studium der Theol. in Oxford (ca.1252–1254 Sentenzenvorlesung), 1254 Magister regens der Theol. Seit…

[English Version] (Guilelmus Parvus; um 1136 Bridlington, Yorkshire – 1198 Newburgh, ebd.). Als Kanoniker des 1145 gegründeten Augustiner-Chorherrenstifts Newburgh (Augustiner-Chorherren) vf. W. neben Predigten eine mariologische Hhld-Auslegung (Explanatio Sacri Epithalamii in Matrem Sponsi, hg. von J.C. Gorman, 1960) und eine engl. Gesch. (Historia Rerum Anglicarum, hg. von R. Howlett, 2 Bde., 1884/85), die nüchtern, genau und ausgewogen die Zeit von 1066–1198 (d.h. die Regierungszeit Heinrichs II. und Richards I. Löwenherz von England) darstellt. Ulrich Köpf Bib…

[German Version] village in Latium, in the valley of the Aniene east of Rome. Here Benedict of Nursia is said to have lived in a cave (Sacro Speco) as a hermit and to have later joined with companions to form a monastic settlement in rooms of a former villa of the emperor Nero (monastery of San Clemente). In the years that followed, he is said to have founded ten additional monasteries before going to Monte Cassino in 529. Two of them are still standing today: San Benedetto (Sacro Speco) and, low…

[German Version] In the 12th century, a scholarly work briefly summarizing the totality of important knowledge in a particular field (Robert of Melun: singulorum brevis comprehensio) came to be called a Summa (later also Summula). Various disciplines were represented: Summa grammaticae/grammaticalis; Summa super Priscianum; Summa dictaminis/artis notariae; Summa logicae ( Summulae dialectices/logicales/logicae); Summa de modis significandi; Summa philosophiae; Summula philosophiae naturalis; Summa de anima, etc. Compendia of civil and canon law were also called Summae…

[German Version] Latin patrocinium denotes a proprietary relationship, usually established by consecration, and the consequent protective function of a patron (usually a saint) with respect to a church or altar, a country, a city or bishopric, a group (social class, noble family, profession, guild, confraternity, university, monastery, religious congregation, or the like), or an individual. In return for protection, the patron is honored by the faithful in a wide variety of liturgical and paraliturgical forms. ¶ The ancient Roman term patronus first appears as a term for a …

[German Version] (Gottfried of Clairvaux; c. 1114/20, Auxerre – after 1188, Hautecombe). As a student of Abelard, attracted to the Cistercians in ¶ 1140 by the Paris sermon of Bernard of Clairvaux, De conversione. He was a monk in Clairvaux, Bernard's secretary until his death in 1153, abbot of Igny from 1156 and of Clairvaux from 1162 to 1165. After his forced resignation, he was a monk in Cîteaux, abbot of Fossanova near Rome beginning in 1170 and of Hautecombe (Savoie) from 1176 to 1188. Gottfried collected Bernard's letters and material for his Vita prima, which he initiated and book…

[German Version] (1095/1100, near Novara, Lombardy – Jul 21/22, 1160, Paris). After studying in northern Italy and Reims, Peter came to Paris c. 1135 as an outsider; by 1145 he was already one of the most important teachers in the cathedral school. On Jul 28, 1159, he was consecrated bishop of Paris, but he was unable to distinguish himself in that office. In his years of teaching, he produced glosses (Glossa ordinaria) on the Psalms (PL 191, 55–1296) and the Pauline Epistles, also called the magna (or maior) glossatura (PL 191, 1297–1696; 192, 9–520), as well as four books of Sententiae (crit…

[German Version] I. Middle Ages Waldenses (Valdesi), supporters of the townsman Waldo from Lyon, made their first historical appearance in 1179 at the Third Lateran Council, where they vainly requested permission to preach freely. In 1180, Waldo and his companions ( fratres) committed themselves to an orthodox creed at a synod in Lyon and pledged to lead a life according to the counsels of perfection. By doing so, the community of the “Poor of Lyon” attained public visibility. In analogy to other religious movements of the 12th century…

[German Version] (June 13, 1884, Paris – Sep 19, 1978, Auxerre), philosopher. In 1913, he became professor at Lille, in 1919 at Strasbourg, from 1921 to 1932 he was ¶ professor at the Sorbonne, and from 1932 at the Collège de France. In 1929, he co-founded the Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies in Toronto, and in 1947 became a member of the Académie Française. Gilson was also a systematic philosopher (e.g. Matières et formes, 1964; ET: Forms and Substances in the Arts, 2001), although the focal point of his work lay in the history of what he called “Christian philosoph…

[German Version] I. The Term – II. Assessment and Study – III. Definition – IV. Characteristics – V. Early, High, and Late Middle Ages I. The Term French moyen âge has been used for a historical period since 1572, English Middle Age(s) since 1611 and Middle Time(s) since 1612. The German word Mittelalter had already been used by the Swiss historian Aegidius Tschudi ( mittel alters) in 1538, but it did not reappear in this sense (in contrast to “middle age”) until 1786; at the beginning of the 19th century, it finally prevailed over the more common 18th-century expressions mittlere Zeit(e…

[German Version] I. Early Research At the dawn of the 21st century, a history of piety is more a desideratum than a reality, especially in Protestantism. In the 19th century, the notion of piety as defined in its modern sense by Pietism, J.W. v. Goethe, and Romanticism and grounded theologically by F.D.E. Schleiermacher did not lead to academic study of the history of piety. To this day, religious scholarship avoids the term; there is no lemma Frömmigkeit in HRWG II, 1990. Not until the end of the 19th century did church history deal with the history of piety, primarily …

[German Version] The Carmelite Order goes back to a community of occidental hermits on Mount Carmel, who were granted a rule by the patriarch of Jerusalem in 1210. It obligated them to a strict contemplative life. The spirituality of the community, led by a prior, was marked by anachoretic traditions, the example of the prophet Elijah, and veneration of the Virgin Mary. In 1240, the Carmelites fled before the growing threat of the Saracens into their European homelands, where …

[German Version] The word legend (from Middle Lat. legenda [ sc. vita or acta]) originally denoted a text to be read during worship or within a monastic community, especially at mealtime, in walkways set aside for reading, or in the chapter house. The subject matter was the life and deeds of one or more saints (Saints/Veneration ¶ of the saints: II). For the most part, the legend was regularly read in whole or in part on the festival of the particular saint. In conjunction with the functionalization of the cult of the saints, which had already begun i…

[German Version] The Wilhelmite order goes back to a hermitage (Monasticism: III) founded in Tuscany in the mid-12th century. Its founder is said to have been a French noble named Wilhelm, a former soldier who settled near Pisa in 1145 after several pilgrimages; later he moved to the mountain valley of Malavalle, near Siena, where he lived a strictly ascetic life as a hermit with a single companion (later joined by a second). After his death on Feb 10, 1157, a hermitage grew up at his burial site;…

[German Version] (Discalceates). The term for religious people who, as an expression of penitence and in reference to Jesus' missionary instructions, wear no shoes or only sandals: in the Middle Ages, these were at first the Camaldolese and especially the Franciscans, who came to be known as Barefoot Friars in Germany; in the modern period, especially the Passionists. Going barefoot is also characteristic for reform movements in some of the older orders since the 16th century (Carmelites Augustinian Hermits, Trinitarians, Mercedarians). Ulrich Köpf Bibliography E. Pacho, “Scalz…

[German Version] The principality of Liechtenstein is a microstate (160 km2) between the Swiss cantons of Sankt Gallen and Grisons (Graubünden) to the west and the Austrian state of Vorarlberg to the east. It is a hereditary constitutional monarchy with a population of 35,300 (2007), 80% Catholic, 7.4% Protestant (1996). Rulers of Liechtenstein are first mentioned in the 12th century, with two lines possessing lands in Styria and Moravia. When the Styrian line died out in 1619, the Moravian lord of Nikols…

[German Version] (c. 1185, Hales, England – Aug 21, 1245, Paris). After studying the arts and theology, Alexander taught in the Parisian theological faculty from the early 1220s, but maintained close relations with home. In 1229, he moved with the striking Parisian professors and students to Angers and brought forward their demands to the Roman Curia in 1230/1231. When …

[German Version] (1168, Mantua? – 1249, Budriolo, Romagna). A layperson who led a life of penitence as a hermit beginning in 1209 in the small village of Budriolo on the northern margins of the Apennines. He founded a hermit community named after him in 1217, at the earliest; it lived according to the Augustinian Rule (Augustine, rule of) and became an order active in pastoral care in northern Italy which was incorporated in 1256 into the order of the Augustinian Hermits. Ulrich Köpf Bibliography K. Elm, “Italienische Eremitengemeinschaften des 12. und 13. Jh.,” in idem, Vitasfratrum, 199…

[German Version] Mendicants Dispute, term for the controversies at the University of Paris about the status of the mendicants (Mendicant orders), who from 1217 (Dominicans) and 1219 (Franciscans) lived in Paris as students, preachers, and pastors, and who since the university strike from 1229 to 1231 also held chairs in the theological faculty (1229 Roland of Cremona OP, 1231 John of St. Giles OP, 1236 Alexander of Hales OFM). The growing competition with the mendicants, who were favored by the po…

[German Version] (after 841 – May 2, probably 908, Paris), a monk from the monastery of St. Germain in Auxerre, where he succeeded his teacher Heiric ( Heiricus). Remigius was involved in the renewal of the school of Reims around 893 and taught in Paris from 900 onward. He authored more than 20 works that were widely read in the Middle Ages, although most of them have never been printed: commentaries on ancient and early medieval grammarians and poets, on Genesis and the Psalms, and on Boethius’s De consolatione philosophiae and Opuscula sacra; he also wrote an exposition of the mass. Ulrich Kö…

[German Version] (Nov 26, 1221, Toledo – Apr 4, 1284, Seville), king of Castile and Leon from 1252 to 1284. As the grandson of Philip of Swabia, he claimed the Hohenstaufen throne and embarked on an imperialistic policy embracing the entire Mediterranean region. His political ambitions came to nothing; he was more important as a lawgiver who sought to create a uniform code of law for Castile, historian (he wrote or directed the writing of a history of Spain, Estoria de España, and a universal history, Grande e general estoria), and promoter of astronomy, music, and poetry (427 Cantigas de S.…

[German Version] (c. 1045, Arbrissel near Rennes – Feb 25, 1116, Priory of Orsan-en-Berry), son of a hereditary priest of Arbrissel. After studies in Paris, Robert entered the service of Bishop Silvester of Rennes as a clerk. After further studies in Angers (from 1078) he experienced a conversion to ascetic life, and withdrew as a hermit to the Forest of Craon (Anjou), where he founded a collegiate establishment in 1095, leaving it in order to travel through the countryside preaching repentance (f…

[German Version] I. Terminology Today we limit the term Reformation (from Lat. reformatio) exclusively to the events set in motion by M. Luther, ¶ U. Zwingli, and other Reformers, which led in the course of the 16th century to a cleavage within Western Christendom that has lasted to this day. Until well into the 19th century, however, the term still had its original, broader sense of reform (Reform, Idea of), under which the event we call the Reformation was subsumed. It was the appearance of the French word réforme in the 17th century, borrowed into German in the course of the 19t…

[German Version] (Guilelmus Parvus; c. 1136, Bridlington, Yorkshire – 1198, Newburgh, Yorkshire). While a canon in the Augustinian canonry at Newburgh (Canons Regular of St. Augustine), in addition to sermons William wrote a mariological exposition of the Song of Songs ( Explanatio sacri epithalamii in matrem sponsi, ed. J.C. Gorman, 1960) and a history of England ( Historia rerum anglicarum, ed. R.Howlett, 2 vols., 1884–1885), a sober, precise, and balanced account of the period from 1066 to 1198 (i.e. the reigns of Henry II and Richard I of England). Ulrich Köpf Bibliography R. Jahnc…

[German Version] The suburbicarian dioceses are those in the region adjacent ( suburbium) to Rome. Most have had a checkered history: Albano, Frascati (replacing Tusculum, which replaced Labicum and was de facto an episcopal see from 1058 to 1197, recognized nominally until 1537), Ostia, Palestrina, Porto (united the Santa Rufina [Silva Candida] by Callistus II), Sabina (the result of incorporating the see of Nomentum into the see of Forum Novum; united ¶ with Poggio Mirteto in 1925), Velletri (united with Ostia in 1150, separated once more in 1914, and united with …

[German Version] I. University 1. The University of Tübingen was founded in 1477 by count Eberhard the Bearded, during what is known as the “second foundation wave” of German universities. It was the university of the southern part of Württemberg, at that time divided into two. It received the papal privilege in 1476, and imperial confirmation in 1484. For the material support of the professorial chairs, the count devoted eight of the ten regular canonries, and two-thirds of the income of the Sindel…

[German Version] (Giovanni Fidanza; c. 1217, Bagno-regio [south of Orvieto] – Jul 15, 1274, Lyon) I. Life – II. Work – III. Influence I. Life Most of the dates for Bonaventura's life prior to 1257 are uncertain. After studying in the Paris faculty of arts, the son of Giovanni and Ritella Fidanza joined the Franciscans around 1243, who gave him the name Bonaventura. He began studying under Alexander of Hales, earning his Baccalaureus biblicus in 1248 and lecturing on the Sentences in 1250–52. In 1253 he received the licentiate and began teachi…

[German Version] (c. 1300, northern Germany – Apr 10, 1378, Straßburg). Initially a Dominican, he was a Carthusian after c. 1340 (Straßburg, Coblenz [Prior], Mainz, Straßburg). His major work is the Vita Jesu Christi, a work based on the gospel harmony of Zacharias of Besançon (Chrysopolitanus, first half of the 12th cent.), early church authors and medieval, meditative and historicizing Jesus literature. It does not simply recount Jesus' life, but seeks, in individual sections (structured according to the scheme of lectio, meditatio and oratio and enriched by introductions an…