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[English version] Die V. wurde als schwere Persönlichkeitsverletzung sowohl im griech. (att.) Recht als auch im röm. Recht verfolgt. In Athen dürfte die V. unter den Tatbestand der kakēgoría (vgl. auch loidoría ) gefallen sein und zu einer Geldbuße auf private Klage hin geführt haben. Im röm. Recht war die V. ebenfalls ein Privatdelikt als eine Ausprägung der iniuria (Rechtsverletzung). Mit der V. verwandt war möglicherweise das carmen famosum (“Spottgedicht”) der 12 Tafeln ( tabulae duodecim ). Eine qualifizierte Art der V. war die röm. calumnia (falsche Ansc…

[English version] (“Strafe”, = St.) wird im röm. Recht ähnlich wie poena verwendet, jedoch beschränkt auf die “öffentliche” St. (Strafrecht) und spezieller die Todesstrafe. Darüber, wie s. (urspr. wohl: Bitte um Vergebung) die Bed. einer St. erh. hat, sind nur Spekulationen möglich. Die Zwölf Tafeln (5. Jh. v. Chr.) kennen zwar die Todes-St. in einigen Fällen, jedoch überwiegend als private St.; sie wird in den Berichten über das Gesetz nicht als s. bezeichnet. Mehrfach ist in den Quellen von einem s. more maiorum (“St. nach der Vätersitte”) die Rede (Nachweise [1. 204-207…

[English version] (wörtl. etwa “das den Rücken Wenden”). Im röm. Recht die Abwendung des privaten Anklägers im Strafverfahren ( accusatio , delatio nominis ) von der durch ihn eingeleiteten Verfolgung des Angeklagten. Die t. führte seit dem SC Turpillianum (61 n. Chr.) zu einem Strafverfahren gegen den Ankläger selbst. Bei ungerechtfertigtem Rücktritt wurde die t. mit einer Geldbuße bestraft (Dig. 47,15,3,3). Darüber hinaus erlitt der private Ankläger den Verlust der Amtsfähigkeit und bürgerlichen Ehre ( infamia , Dig. 48,16,2). Der vom (zurückgetret…

[English version] Das U. aufgrund gerichtlicher Verfahren wurde in der griech. und röm. Ant. ganz durch die vorangehende Klage oder Anklage bestimmt, z. B. in Athen von díkē [2] (Zivilklage) und graphḗ [1] (Strafklage). Zur Findung des U. war dann nichts zu begründen; nur die Stimmen im Entscheidungsgremium waren auszuzählen. Der “Urteiler” ( iudex ) im röm. Recht hatte im wesentlichen nur Beweise zu erheben. Die rechtliche Würdigung war vorweggenommen mit der Zulassung der Klage ( actio [2]), v. a. durch den Praetor. Prozeßrecht; Strafe, Strafrecht Schiemann, Gottfried

[English version] Der t.t. V. des mod. Rechts ist geprägt durch das röm. legatum , dessen wörtliche Übers. “V.” ist. Das röm. Recht unterschied bei der testamentarischen Regelung der Vermögensnachfolge nach dem Tod zw. der Einsetzung zum vollgültigen Rechtsnachfolger als Erbe ( heres, s. dazu Erbrecht III.) - bzw. mehrere Erben - und Zuwendung einzelner Gegenstände als V. Andere ant. Rechte enthalten keine vergleichbare Konstruktion. Fideicommissum; Testament [2] IV. Schiemann, Gottfried

[English version] ist der vielleicht besser als “Soldatengüter” zu bezeichnende Landbesitz, an den sich mil. Pflichten knüpften: sei es der Waffendienst des Inhabers, seien es die Stellung und Ausrüstung von Soldaten (gleichsam als Stellvertreter des Inhabers). S. in diesem Sinne kamen insbes. im Alten Orient vor. Sie sind relativ gut überl. für das Perserreich der Achaimenidai [2] (6.-4. Jh. v. Chr.) und für das Hethitische Reich (Ḫattusa II.); auch äg. Militärkolonien bestanden wohl aus aktiven …

[English version] Im röm. Recht der t.t. für den Schatz, den jemand findet (Inst. Iust. 2,1,39). Der spätklass. Jurist Iulius [IV 16] Paulus (Anf. 3. Jh. n. Chr.) verwendet dafür thensaurus, den er definiert als ‘ein lange zurückliegendes Weglegen von Geld, an das keine Erinnerung mehr vorhanden ist, so daß es keinen Eigentümer mehr hat’ ( vetus quaedam depositio pecuniae, cuius non existat memoria, ut iam dominium non habeat, Dig. 41,1,31,1). Als th. wurde aber nicht nur Geld, sondern jeder Wertgegenstand angesehen. Warum man dafür ein griech. Lehnwort gebrauch…

[English version] Die V. ersetzte in der griech.-röm. Antike weitgehend die Todesstrafe für die Angehörigen der Oberschicht, kam aber wie im attischen ostrakismós auch als selbständige Strafe vor. Zu den Einzelheiten für Griechenland, insbesondere Athen, s. phygḗ , aeiphygía , apeniautismós , für Rom s. exilium , deportatio , relegatio . Schiemann, Gottfried

[English version] Die V. spielte sowohl im attischen Recht (vgl. epítropos [2]) als auch im röm. Recht (vgl. tutela [1]) eine wichtige Rolle. Sie bestand nicht nur gegenüber Kindern und Heranwachsenden, soweit sie nicht unter patria postestas (“väterlicher Gewalt”) waren, sondern in weitem Umfang auch als Geschlechts-V. gegenüber Frauen ( kýrios II., tutela [1] III.). Schiemann, Gottfried

[English version] (die “Schätzung”) ist im röm. Formularprozeß ( formula ) die Höchstgrenze, bis zu der der iudex (“Richter”) nach der Anweisung des Praetors zur Verurteilung ( condemnatio ) die Urteilssumme festsetzen durfte. Die t. kommt typischerweise vor: (1) bei der Haftung des Herrn mit dem Eigengut ( peculium ) des Sklaven oder Haussohnes aus der actio de peculio oder aus der actio de in rem verso wegen Vermögensvermehrungen durch das Handeln solcher Gewaltunterworfener ( patria potestas ), (2) bei der Einrede des Schuldners wegen einer Notlage ( beneficium competentiae) und …

[English version] (wörtl. “Fesseln”). Schon nach den XII Tafeln (tab. 3,3; tabulae duodecim ) konnte der Gläubiger zum Zwecke der Zwangsvollstreckung den Schuldner in v. legen. Damit wurde eine Schuldhaft begründet. Sie zielte zunächst auf die Erzwingung der Schuldzahlung durch den Schuldner selbst oder einen Dritten, war aber auch Durchgangsstadium dazu, über den Schuldner persönlich nach Ablauf einer Frist zu verfügen, ihn z. B. in die Sklaverei zu verkaufen oder ihn in Schuldknechtschaft die Summe, zu der er verurte…

[English version] Das Verlöbnis im röm. Recht. Es hat seine Bezeichnung offenbar daher, daß in früherer Zeit die Ehe wechselseitig durch förmliche stipulatio (oder sinngleich sponsio ) der Väter beider Brautleute versprochen wurde. In der späten Republik und im Prinzipat waren die s. frei widerruflich, und es konnte nicht auf Eingehung der Ehe geklagt werden. Auch indirekte Bindungen (z. B. Vertragsstrafen, Dig. 45,1,134 pr.) waren nichtig. Schiemann, Gottfried Bibliography Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb, 392 f.  Treggiari, 145-160.

(wörtl. “Zeichen”, Pl. signa). [English version] [1] (Name) s. Supernomen (Name) s. Supernomen Schiemann, Gottfried [English version] [2] (Militärwesen) s. Feldzeichen; Signale (Militärwesen) s. Feldzeichen; Signale Schiemann, Gottfried [English version] [3] Brandzeichen für Sklaven Brandzeichen, mit dem bei den Römern Sklaven kenntlich gemacht wurden (Sklaverei). Dies kam zur Verhinderung der Flucht und bei Diebstahlsgefahr vor sowie generell bei Straftätern, die zur Arbeit im Bergwerk ( in metallum) verurteilt worden und dadurch zu Sklaven geworden waren. We…

[English version] I. Überblick Als ein eigenes Rechtsgebiet ist das V. in der frühen Neuzeit (v. a. durch Hugo Grotius, 1583-1645) etabliert worden. Dafür hat sich der aus dem röm. Recht stammende Begriff des ius (A.2.) gentium durchgesetzt, der in der Ant. nicht V. bezeichnete, sondern diejenigen Vorstellungen vom Recht überhaupt, die - wie man annahm - allen Völkern gemeinsam waren. Dazu gehörten auch Grundsätze, die dem V. im engeren Sinn zuzuordnen sind, wie die Unverletzlichkeit diplomatischer Vertreter (Dig. 50,7,18). Einen…

[English version] (wörtl. “Ehetafeln”). In Urkunden niedergelegte Eheverträge des röm. Rechts seit der Kaiserzeit (vgl. Tac. ann. 6,45,5 zu Messalina [2] und Silius 48 n. Chr.). Die Ehe selbst war nach röm. Recht kein (förmlicher) Vertrag, sondern Geschlechtsgemeinschaft mit dem Willen zum ehelichen Leben ( affectio maritalis). Gegenstand der t.n. waren hingegen die mit der Ehe verbundenen Vermögensfragen, v. a. das Versprechen der Mitgift ( dos ) an den Mann zur Versorgung der Frau, in der Spätant. wohl auch das Versprechen von Schenkungen des Mannes vor oder wegen der Ehe ( donati…

[English version] (“Vermögensverkauf”) ist das Modell für die röm. Vermögensvollstreckung ( missio in possessionem ) gegen Schuldner im röm. Recht. Blieb jemand, insbes. ein Steuerpächter ( publicani ), dem röm. Staat etwas schuldig, wurde sein ganzes Vermögen veräußert. Der Erwerber mußte die Schuld übernehmen. Der Verkaufspreis ging an den Staatsschatz ( aerarium ). Die s. b. fand auch bei den Bürgen ( praedes) statt, die der Staatsschuldner vielfach beizubringen hatte. Schulden Schiemann, Gottfried Bibliography M. Kaser, K. Hackl, Das röm. Zivilprozeßrecht 21996, 389 f…

[English Version] . I. Z. oder Bürgerliches Recht (sinngleich oft auch: Privatrecht) bez. denjenigen Teil des geltenden Rechts, der die Beziehungen der Bürger (und der privaten Unternehmen) untereinander regelt, nämlich die Verträge zw. ihnen, die einseitigen Akte mit Wirkung für andere (wie Testamente oder Kündigungen) und die unmittelbar gesetzlich begründeten Ansprüche, z.B. auf Unterhalt, auf die Beseitigung von Störungen der Individualsphäre oder die Wiedergutmachung von Schäden. Der Begriff Z…

[German version] In Roman law, legally incapable of being a witness ( testis). The Inst. Iust. (2,10,6) lists as intestabiles: women, minors, slaves, the dumb, the deaf, the mentally ill, legally incapacitated wastrels and those who had been declared improbus (dishonourable) and intestabilis by a special law. Legal arrangements of this kind result, for example, (according to Ulp. Dig. 47,10,5,9) from the lex Cornelia de iniuriis against authors or distributors of articles with offensive content or (according to Cassius Dig. 1,9,2) from the lex Iulia de repetundis against those re…

[German version] In the confusio (the ‘merging’) the same person is both debtor and creditor or owner and holder of a limited material right, e.g. a usufruct. In Roman law confusio led to the extinction of the claim or the right. The late classic jurists (3rd cent. AD) occasionally use the term consolidatio for confusio without creating material distinctions. The effect of the confusio could not be prevented by the will of the parties. However, the Roman jurists occasionally assume a duty to refound the claim or right. The opinion of the Proculians ( Law schools) that the   noxalis actio …

[German version] While the word pater familias indicates a clearly defined legal status, the designation of the Roman mother of a family is a social rather than a legal one. Originally, MF was the honorary title for a married woman living in the → manus (marital control) of her husband, with whom she had children. Her social position was, in contrast with (and in compensation for) her legal status ( Manus), a high one. She had precedence over all other members of the household apart from her husband. By the time the manus marriage had fallen into disuse, the term MF - literally the mot…

[German version] (more complete: minores viginti quinque annis; singular: minor) in Roman law those under the age of 25. In a narrower (and originally technical) meaning, persons aged 15 to 24 were called minores, in a broader sense anyone who had not reached the age of majority (at least 25 in Roman law). The legal regulations for minores in the narrow sense concerned their ability to enter into contracts and other legal transactions (contractual capacity). This must be distinguished from legal capacity, that is the ability to establish and acquire r…

[German version] [1] see Status [1] A. see Status [1] A. Schiemann, Gottfried (Tübingen) [German version] [2] Legal expression Translatio iuris ('transfer of rights') finds expression in the famous phrase: "A person cannot transfer to another person rights greater than those he has himself" (' nemo plus iuris transferre potest quam ipse habet', Ulp. Dig. 50,17,54). This formula from the early 3rd cent. AD reflects the concept in classical Roman law that subjective rights do not emerge anew in the person receiving them -- as was assumed in the ear…

[German version] A. Overview Novellae is the abbreviation for the Latin novellae leges (‘new laws’, also Greek nearaí diatáxeis). In general, it refers to the legislation of the emperors in Late Antiquity, enacted chronologically after the official collections of the Codices Theodosianus and Iustinianus ( codex II.C.). In a narrower sense, it refers to the novellae of Iustinianus [1], which in modern editions of the Corpus iuris constitute the fourth and last part of this 6th-cent. collection. In contrast to the other parts ( Institutiones Iustiniani, Digesta, Codex Iustinianus), h…

[German version] is the unanimous will of the parties of a contract (  contractus ). In Roman law it was the basis of the binding character of buying (  emptio venditio ), contracts of lease, work and employment (  locatio conductio ), of commission (  mandatum ) and association (  societas ). The ‘invention of’ consensus as the central element of a system of civil law is one of the ‘grandest juridical achievements, and one of the most influential for further development’ [1. 180]. The liability resulting from consensus necessitates neither a specific form nor an advance nor perfo…

[German version] According to Gai. Inst. 1,112, the term confarreatio is based on the fact that during this religious act a farreus panis (a bread made of emmer but not spelt) was sacrificed by the bridal couple to Iuppiter farreus (  far ). Apart from the   coemptio and a one-year valid duration of the marriage ( usus), the confarreatio was the third option of establishing the   manus (male power) over the wife. This effect was probably an ancillary result of the confarreatio while the highly festive conclusion of the marriage probably took centre stage in the ceremony. It to…

[German version] In Gai. Inst. 3,88 contractus constitutes, with delicts, one of the two higher branches of the whole Roman law of obligations. This has led many analysts to translate contractus simply as ‘contracts’. Originally, however, contractus was really not limited to a commitment as a contract but actually meant literally only ‘to incur (an obligation)’. In the period of the principate contractus was indeed understood to be linked to an agreement ( consensus, conventio) (Dig. 2,14,1,3). Even then, however, not every agreement would necessarily lead to a contractus. As no co…

(Literally 'sign', pl. signa). [German version] [1] (Name) see Supernomen (Name) see Supernomen Schiemann, Gottfried (Tübingen) [German version] [2] (Military matters) see Ensigns; Signals (Military matters) see Ensigns; Signals Schiemann, Gottfried (Tübingen) [German version] [3] Brand mark for slaves The brand mark by which the Romans identified slaves (Slavery). It was used to prevent escape and deter theft, and for criminals in general if they were condemned to work in the mines ( in metallum), thus becoming slaves. Those who had been branded in this manner could …

[German version] A term in the Law of the Twelve Tables ( c. 450 BC,   Tabulae duodecim ). Its significance in legal history is still very disputed. Iurgium is a milder form of dispute than the litigation before court (  lis ); otherwise a general term for a dispute. It is conceivable that iurgium meant an out-of-court settlement, perhaps with the support of the pontifices. In the classical period (1st cent. BC - 3rd cent. AD) this form of resolution had long fallen out of use. Schiemann, Gottfried (Tübingen) Bibliography M. Kaser, K. Hackl, Das röm. Zivilprozeßrecht, 21997, 58).

[German version] (‘One who apportions endowments’). From the 2nd cent. BC or earlier war spoils of the Roman state were occasionally distributed among the people of Rome. In the absence of an official ‘Body of Apportionment’ it fell to private citizens, divisores, to assume that function. By the end of the Republic this had led to a system of canvassing that has been described in detail in Cicero Planc. 48ff. Divisores promised in single   tribus a ‘reward’ to a sufficient number of tribus members in the event of a particular candidate being elected. If the tribus was won over and the cand…

('Twelve Tables', or, more completely, lex duodecim tabularum, 'Law of the Twelve Tables'), the most important legislation of the Roman Republic. The name originates in the tradition that they were written on twelve oak ( roboreas, as it ought to read, rather than eboreas, 'ivory', in Pompon. Dig. 1,2,2,4) tablets. However, they have not survived in epigraphic form. Text and content must be reconstructed from ancient literature. It may be assumed, in the light of accounts of the legislative process in ancient authors (esp. Liv. 3,32 ff.), that they were written around 450 BC. …

[German version] The childless who, according to Roman law dating from the time of Augustus, suffered certain legal penalties: to promote a higher birthrate, women who had many children benefited through the lex Iulia de maritandis ordinibus and the lex Papia ( ius liberorum ), while on the flip-side childless people (men and women) were restricted in their capacity ( capacitas) to accept inheritances and legacies: what was left to orbi under a will, was halved (in the case of a surviving spouse reduced to a tenth). The remainder, known as the caducum (a lapsed inher…

[German version] In Rome the suspension of judicial activity generally ordered by a magistrate (the highest present in Rome) with an edict and associated with further restrictions of transactions, e.g. the closure of the state treasury (  aerarium , Cic. Har. resp. 55) or the stores in the Forum (Liv. 9,7,8). By the late Republic this order had to be preceded by a resolution of the Senate (Liv. 3,3,6). The iustitium was not solely an emergency measure but already in the Republican period could be caused by public mourning over a military defeat (Liv. 9,7,8) or the…

[German version] has two meanings in Roman law: one describing a ‘measure’ primarily of land, the other - according to the matter in hand - the same as the modern concept of an instruction (on a gift or testamentary benefit). M. agri (the land measure) was the subject of a well-known action from Paul. sent. 2,17,4  ( actio de modo agri): if the price of a piece of land was calculated according to its area, the purchaser could demand from the seller double the proportional price as a private penalty, if it transpired that the area was smaller than stated.…

[German version] A Roman forfeiture or cancellation agreement, it was usually a unilateral (hence: lex ) clause inserted in conditions of sale (see emptio venditio D), or a pledge ( fiducia , pignus ). Upon purchase the clause granted the vendor a right of rescission if the purchaser did not pay the purchase price - for instance, in the event of an agreement for payment in instalments or a date of payment. If the vendor exercised the right of rescission, he could request the return of the sold property by means of the actio venditi (according to the Sabinians) or by means of an actio in factum (acco…

[German version] Someone who has something to announce or proclaim. In a narrower sense the term is applied to those who, whether as a private individual or on behalf of an office, report a criminal offence. Denuntiator is then very often synonymous with   delator . The excesses of the latter had a lasting effect on the public opinion on denunciation. Denuntiatores crop up in Rome even as junior officials in the role of heralds. For similar functions in Greek law   menysis ,   sykophantes . Schiemann, Gottfried (Tübingen)

[German version] In Rome being eligible to marry ( conubium) was a prerequisite for a legally valid marriage. Both partners had to have the conubium: Conubium est uxoris iure ducendae facultas. Conubium habent cives Romani cum civibus Romanis: cum Latinis autem et peregrinis ita, si concessum sit. Cum servis nullum est conubium (‘ Conubium is the legal ability to marry a woman. Roman citizens have the conubium to marry each other but, only by special dispensation, to marry Latins and other foreigners . There is no conubium with slaves’; Ulp. 5,3-5). That description omits to mentio…

[German version] Suicide, from neo-Latin suicidium ('self-killing'), a parallel formation on homicidium , was a subject of lively intellectual debate in Greek and Roman Antiquity: in schematic comparison it can be said that the followers of and successors to Plato, as well as Aristotle [6] and Neo-Platonism, condemned suicide, whereas some Sophists, and the Cynics (Cynicism) even more, acknowledged suicide as an expression of individual freedom, even expressly endorsing it. This point of …

[German version] The institution of the law court (LC) has existed from the beginning of state control in antiquity. It is no longer possible to deduce whether and where a phase of arbitration preceded it. In the documents of the Ancient Orient LCs are attested on many occasions [1; 2; 3]. The respective city prince or king was probably also the master of the court although in Mesopotamia there was also local jurisdiction (i.e. within certain groups) [2]. The scribes were suited for work as judg…

[German version] The ‘Basilics’, after the Greek term basiliká (n.pl.: ‘imperial’; sc. law books), are a compilation in Greek of the most important parts of the   Corpus iuris (  Digesta and   Codex (II)Iustinianus, as well as extracts from   Institutiones and   Novellae C.) from the time of the Byzantine emperor Leo(n) [9] VI (886-912). For five-and-a-half centuries the Basilics secured the continuance of Roman law in Byzantium (I. B.3). At the same time, they are an invaluable secondary source for the survival of the Corpus iuris, above all the Digesta (A.3). The Basilics also f…

[German version] in Roman court proceedings is the opposite of ‘condemnation’ (  condemnatio ). In civil proceedings the formula in which the praetors set down the programme for the iudex ends stereotypically with the judicial command ... condemnato. Si non paret, absolvito. Both absolutio and condemnatio were final and absolute, in other words the decision -- apart from the special case of   appellatio -- was irrevocable, the dispute was definitively concluded and the exceptio rei iudicatae (demurrer of legal force) stood in the way of a new action. The saying omnia iudicia absolutor…

[German version] (relations by marriage). Gai. Inst. 1,63 speaks of adfinitas in connection with the statement: Item (scil. uxorem ducere non licet) eam, quae nobis quondam socrus, aut nurus, aut priuigna, aut nouerca fuit. According to this in classical Roman law (possibly since Augustus' marriage legislation) marriage to mother-in-law, daughter-in-law, stepdaughter and stepmother is forbidden. This impediment to marriage was extended in late antiquity to relations by marriage of the first degree in the collateral line (brother's wife, wife's sister) (Cod. Theod. 3,12,2). Sch…

[German version] The Digests (Title 47,13) label cases of a forced granting of benefits to an officeholder as concussio (blackmail). Possibly, this is a further development of the reclamation procedure (  repetundarum crimen ). Punishable behaviour in office due to concussio was not prosecuted by a iudicium publicum but by extraordinaria   cognitio . Therefore, it was probably only considered an independent offence in the Imperial period (2nd cent. AD). The sources present pretending a (higher) official authority, orders of a superior and threats of an unfounded suit as means of concu…

[German version] I. General The most important foundations of later European conceptions of law were laid in OT Judaic law, in Greek law as practical counterpart to the beginnings of philosophical reflection on justice ( Pre-Socratics; Justice), and above all in Roman law as the defining authority for the development of secular European jurisprudence since the late Middle Ages ( Reception). Law always comprises regulation on the part of a sizeable community for the settlement of conflicts between…

[German version] From a statement by the Roman jurist, Paul (Dig. 50,16,144) the meaning of paelex (also pelex, pellex, different in Greek pallakḗ ) is that of a female partner to whom one is not married (i.e not uxor, Marriage III.C.). The legal status of paelex was treated in Roman law mainly in the context of concubinage ( concubinatus ). Schiemann, Gottfried (Tübingen)

[German version] (literally 'that which is written down'), in the field of law, denoted all Roman documents, and (as literacy increased) from the Principate, but esp. in late antiquity, e.g. the testament, the note of hand ( cheirógraphon ), generally the contract, but also a legal opinion or a legal ruling, provided that these were given in writing. In a narrower sense, probably arising from the fact that the Roman tax farmers ( publicani ) 'marked down' transactions of relinquishment of public pasture to private (sub-)lessees, scriptura was the payment the lessee had to make for…

[German version] The actus contrarius of a   confarreatio , which dissolved a marriage joined in this form and followed the same ceremony. At the same time it effected the termination of the (former) husband's spousal powers (  manus ). Schiemann, Gottfried (Tübingen) Bibliography 1 W. Kunkel, s.v. matrimonium, RE 14, 2277 2 Treggiari, 24.

[German version] An auctoratus is, according to Gai. Inst. 3,199, a dependent person, who is named together with the minor children and wives as well as the indentured servants ( iudicati). The position of the auctoratus probably rested on a willing subjection by oath ( auctoramentum), perhaps also on a duty of service on behalf of the   pater familias of the auctoratus to the employer. Since the end of the Republic, a free man could commit himself as auctoratus as a  gladiator, which did not protect him from the   infamia which was otherwise associated with the pos…

[German version] In Roman law a permanent union between man and woman without affectio maritalis, i.e. without the intention of both parties of permanently entering a legal bond for forming a household, procreating and raising children. Since the marital laws of Augustus, the concubinatus increasingly became a form of living together if marriage was prohibited. Thus, senators and their descendants were prohibited under the l. Iulia de maritandis ordinibus from marrying a freedwoman, actress or daughter of an actor. Freeborn Romans could not enter into a marriage…

[German version] In Roman law the ‘simple’ death penalty by decapitation (whence also: capitis amputatio), as opposed to being burned alive (  crematio ) and crucifixion (  crux ). All three methods of execution appear in Paulus, Sent. 5,17,2 as summa supplicia (most severe punishments). Certainly from the time of Caligula capital punishment by damnatio ad bestias (animal combat in the arena) was also current practice. Decollatio was typically reserved for higher-status freemen (  honestiores ), while crematio and crux were carried out on ordinary freemen (  humiliores ) and slaves. D…

[German version] ('Revocation') occurs in two special senses in Roman law: (1) as revocatio in servitutem (' revocatio into slavery'), the revocation of manumission, probably only current in Late Antiquity (cf. Cod. Iust. 6,7,2 pr.); (2) in civil actions. There, the convicted party, having already paid, could demand retrial ( restitutio ) only with the risk of being compelled to pay the claimant for the litigation a second time by revocatio in duplum (' revocatio for double the value') if the restitution failed. This applied for the formula procedure ( formula ) and…