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[German version] (literally 'strokes, lashes'), e.g. with a stick ( ferula) or a whip ( flagella), were a means of punishment ( castigatio) in Rome. They occurred as an independent (police) punishment primarily for slaves and members of the lower classes ( humiliores, see Honestiores ) in the framework of the policing powers of the magistrates ( Coercitio ), in particular of the Tresviri [1] capitales in the Republican period, then of the emperor and his agents and of the provincial governors. In Roman penal law - as is known from the flagellation of Jesus - verbera were also an 'additiona…

[German version] In Roman criminal law, a type of criminal association, e.g. between thieves and publicans, as mentioned by Ulpia (Dig. 4,9,1,1), but in particular, the punishable election alliance (a defined case of election fraud,   ambitus ). Election alliances between candidates were probably regarded as harmless as long as only personal relationships, friendships and clientele connections were combined for common success in an election. Distinctly different was the joint bribing of electors on a large scale, against which the lex Licinia by Crassus (55 BC) was directed,…

[German version] An ampliatio (continuation of the case at another date) happened in Roman criminal proceedings if part of the jury (e.g. according to the l. Acilia it had to be a third) by special declaration or withdrawing of vote in the question of guilt made it clear that they did not yet regard the case as ripe for judgement ( non liquet). Ampliatio should be distinguished from   comperendinatio , legally prescribed in certain cases. Republican legislation had, it seemed, already tried to oppose the proliferating use of ampliatio by threatening fines against the judges in the c…

[German version] An old Roman legal rule deals with ignorantia, also ignoratio (ignorance). According to Paulus (3rd cent. AD, Dig. 22,6,9 pr.) it reads: iuris ignorantia nocet, facti vero ignorantia non nocet (‘ignorance of the law is harmful, but not ignorance of the facts’). The preferred term since the Middle Ages is error. For the Romans error and ignorantia were probably synonymous. Error in law neither prevents responsibility for individual behaviour (under criminal and civil law), nor the effectiveness of the   consensus in legal transactions inter vivos or in declarations…

[German version] [1] Latin praenomen Latin praenomen, customary initial abbreviation originally S., then, as it became rarer, from c. 100 BC, Sp. The rare nomen gentile, Spurilius, is derived from its diminutive form, of which no record survives. Some evidence also survives from the Italic languages, e.g. Oscan Spuriis (the personal name identical to the nomen gentile). The vocative formed the basis for the Etruscan personal name Spurie, attested from the 7th cent. BC on. The Etruscan nomen gentile Spurie/ana- was absorbed into Latin in its later pronunciation as Spurinna…

[German version] I. Ancient Orient In judging crimes involving killing, no distinction was made in the ancient Middle East between homicide and manslaughter. Killing, inciting a killing, and having knowledge of a killing were all treated as capital offences and punishable with capital punishment ( Death penalty). In addition, the perpetrator's property and (enslaved) family members could, along with other forms of compensation, be handed over to the victim's family. As the collections of laws show, …

[German version] The word petitio ('request') referred to a specific form of action used in the Roman formulary procedure ( formula ), for example for the actio (action), which arose out of a specific object or a specific sum of money (Dig. 12,1), or the action of the true heir against the possessor of an inheritance ( hereditatis petitio, Dig. 5,3; Cod. Iust. 3,31). Besides these, claims arising from the cognitio procedure ( cognitio ) were mostly referred to as petitio. A strong conceptual distinction between actio, petitio and persecutio (prosecution) did not exist in Roman legal…

[German version] The PP, which continued to exist as paternal power in the German Civil Code was only replaced in Germany following an interim stage of parental power with effect from 1.1.1980 by paternal care, in Rome referred to the extensive right of control which the pater familias exerted over the family. Originally the PP, like the manus over the wife (Marriage III.C.), probably had no legal boundaries, but merely moral and religious ones. The transgression of these could, for example lead to a loss of honour or an exclusion from the nobility or the equites. In Imperial times the PP…

[German version] A. Type of suit in the ius civile Sentencing to a particular payment could be achieved with the   legis actio per condictionem after the 3rd cent. BC: certa pecunia based on a lex Silia, other certae res based on a lex Calpurnia (cf. Gai. Inst. 4,17 b-19). The condictio (‘announcement’) is merely a procedural designation: the court date was not granted immediately but only after the expiry of an ‘announced’ term of 30 days to allow the debtor the option of compliance without court procedure. The certum in this suit is, in the first place, a payback guarantee for an …

[German version] I. Overview International law (IL) was established as a field in its own right during the early modern period (especially by Hugo Grotius, 1583-1645). The term   ius (A.2.) gentium, which originated in Roman law, established itself as its name. However, in antiquity this term did not mean IL but those concepts of  law in general that were assumed to be common to all peoples. This also included principles that belong to IL in its narrow sense such as the inviolability of diplomatic representatives (Dig. 50,7,18). Antiquity did not have a term for IL per se. However, ancient …

[German version] Expression describing an educational measure, as can be inferred from the meaning of the word ( castum agere, ‘to make pure’). The person carrying out the punishment is often excluded from liability for the consequences of castigatio upon the punished: thus the master punishing his apprentice (e.g. Dig. 9,2,5,3). The same goes for the paterfamilias with regard to his children and the master to his slaves (Dig. 7,1,23,1; 48,19,16,2). Castigatio as a policing or juridical measure is partly linked to such private authority-based relationships: by the …

[German version] In Roman law the thief who obtains his loot through break and entry. According to Dig. 47,18 he commits a criminal act that is prosecuted as a   crimen ( publicum). In the Republic it was still a civil offence. An escapee was called an effractor ( carceris) and was also prosecuted as the perpetrator of a crimen in a   cognitio extra ordinem . Schiemann, Gottfried (Tübingen)

[German version] In the Republican period in Rome the records (also   commentarii ) that a magistrate made or had made regarding the orders decreed by him (  acta ). They were personally archived by the magistrate after the end of his period in office (Cic. Sull. 42). From the 3rd cent. AD the term gesta superseded the expression commentarii for the official records. Apart from gesta the word cottidiana occurs in the same sense . With this meaning gesta can be found in all levels of the administration of late antiquity. Ultimately the recording of official files and negotiations by gesta was tr…

[German version] Latin expression and Roman legal term for widow (II.). Schiemann, Gottfried (Tübingen)

[German version] In classical Roman law, the deliberate, groundless and bullying filing of suits and charges. In the regulatory procedure for disputes amongst private individuals, the Praetor awarded a special iudicium calumniae decimae partis, i.e. a penalty for failure to observe correct procedure of 1/10 of the value of the claim (Gai. Inst. 4,175). In the case of manumission or status claims the sanction against the fiduciary claimant (  adsertor in libertatem ) amounted to as much as 1/3 of the value of the slave. The person affected could demand four times the value ( quadruplum) wi…

[German version] A discussor (Greek logothétēs, etym. from discutere in the meaning of ‘to check, investigate’) was an official of the late antique Roman state, to whom article 10,30 of the Cod. lust. was dedicated. The main tasks of the discussores lay in tax administration. In that context, they apparently carried out external audits of the tax bases set by the   census through self-assessment ( professio). They also appear as auditors for customs, public building projects, and state regulated prices. Administrative acts issued by the discussores were called   sententiae …

[German version] The technical term legacy in modern law is a literal translation of the Roman legatum . In the testamentary settlement of the succession of property rights after death, Roman law differentiated between the appointment of the fully valid legal successor as heir ( heres, for this see Succession, law of III.) - or several heirs - and the allocation of individual objects as legacies. Other ancient laws contain no comparable construction. Fideicommissum; Testament [2] IV. Schiemann, Gottfried (Tübingen)

I. Ancient Orient [German version] A. General The term civil law (CL), which is derived from Roman law, covers the legal position of individuals in legal transactions and with respect to family and society. Depending on the definition, family and inheritance law are part of CL.  Legal texts in cuneiform -- as opposed to mature Roman law -- as a pre-scientific legal system are legal institutions derived from practice -- the modern categories used here are anachronistic. Sources and preliminary work on t…

(μόρα; mόra). [German version] [1] Division of the Spartan army In the Spartan army no later than from 403 to 371 BC mora was the usual term for the six largest divisions of the infantry and cavalry assigned to it (Xen. Lac. pol. 11,4; Xen. Hell. 2,4,31; 4,5,3-19; Diod. 15,32,1). Each mora was commanded by a polémarchos   (Xen. hell. 4,4,7; 5,4,51), had a required strength of more than 1,000 men and was organised into lochoi ( lóchos). Burckhardt, Leonhard (Basle) Bibliography 1 J.F. Lazenby, The Spartan Army, 1985, 5ff. [German version] [2] Default in Roman law Default in Roman law. Schiemann…

[German version] In Roman legal history critique of interpolation specifically refers to the examination of the transmitted version of the texts of the Corpus Iuris for falsifications compared with the original. This is of particular relevance to the fragments from the writings of the classical jurists (1st cent. BC - 3rd cent. AD) in the  Digesta , but also to the  Institutiones in comparison to their models and even to the older imperial pronouncements collected in the  Codex Iustinianus . With regard to the Digesta, emperor Justinian himself had already given an express…

[German version] (perhaps from peregre, 'outside the fields', namely the territory of Rome) was the most important technical term of Roman law referring to foreigners (Aliens, the position of), who did not belong to the community of rights of the Roman citizens ( civitas ) but who was nevertheless an enemy or completely without rights. The dediticii , who as members of communities subjected by Rome had been given neither Roman nor Latin citizen law (Latin law), were sometimes partially distinguished from peregrini, and sometimes treated as a special group of peregrini In the time of t…

[German version] [1] Public announcement by magistrates Edictum (from edicere) is a binding public announcement by Roman office bearers (  magistratus ), which presented either concrete orders or a ‘governmental agenda’ [1. 58] for the coming term of office. The word suggests an originally oral announcement [2. 178], but the historically documented form is a recording on an   album (‘white wooden plate’) at the magistrate's office. Literary tradition refers to edicts by   consules ,   aediles ,   praetores , provincial governors, tribuni plebis (  tribunus ),   censores …

[German version] Technical term for the listing of sources at the beginning of the fragments of the digests (  Digesta ) and of the constitutions in the Codex Iustinianus ( Codex II C). The Digesta list the author from the Classical period (e.g. Ulpian), his work (e.g. ad edictum = edict commentary), and the number of the ‘book’ (e.g. libro quinto for 5th bk.); the Codex Iustinianus - as already the Codex Theodosianus - lists the emperor who enacted the respective constitution and the addressee. The inscriptiones in the Digesta were the most important sources for reconstructing the…

[German version] ('right to return home', more common in the combination ius postliminii) is explained in Just. Epit. 1,12,5 as deriving from limen (threshold), and this was supposed to have been metaphorically transferred to the boundary of Roman state territory, so that a prisoner of war, who on his return would be crossing back from beyond ( post) the 'threshold' into the Roman state, would have the right to return to his earlier position before being taken prisoner. On being taken captive by enemies (Prisoners of war), a Roman citizen would become…

[German version] The person who ‘reports’ something to a Roman authority, but in its narrower sense, esp. with regard to the   delatio nominis , the accuser. Considerable advantages were in prospect for the successful delator: as a rule, in the event of a guilty verdict he received a monetary reward in the form of a proportion of the accused man's property ([1]; with additional information in [2]). This naturally resulted in all kinds of abuse (cf. Cic. Rosc. Am. 55: Roscius was probably accused of political corruption in order t…

[German version] The Romans used the word capitale whenever the  death penalty (also poena capitis) was concerned: for the crime itself, the legal process, as well as in passing and executing a sentence, but also for the loss of personal freedom or citizenship (  deminutio capitis ) and particularly with reference to exile (  exilium ), when -- from the late Republican period -- this indeed replaced the death penalty for Roman citizens. Schiemann, Gottfried (Tübingen) Bibliography E. Cantarella, I supplizi capitali in Grecia e a Roma, 1991.

[German version] In the history of Roman politics and the ruler cult, parens (literally: either physical parent, in reality, the father) is, in the combination parens patriae (father of the fatherland), a linguistic forerunner of the exalted name for the emperor pater patriae . The best-known example of its use is in 63 BC when the title parens patriae was bestowed on Cicero by Q. Lutatius [4] Catulus in the Senate after the suppression of the Catilinarian conspiracy (Cic. Sest. 121; Cic. Pis. 6). The title meant that Cicero had saved the Republic. Thi…

[German version] A. Historical foundations In a legal history sense, torture in Antiquity can be understood primarily as a means for eliciting evidence. Furthermore, torture occurs as a(n additional) punishment. The origins of the legally recognized use of torture is obscure. In the Babylonian law Code of Hammurabi (Cuneiform, legal texts in), for instance, there is no mention of torture at all [1]. By contrast, it was widespread in Greece. The Greek expression for the use of torture, βασανίζειν ( basanízein) is probably a loanword from the Orient, however, so that torture …

[German version] The services (more precisely: the daily duties) Roman ex-slaves were obliged to perform for their patron ( p atronus ) after their manumission. The phenomenon of servitude for freed people is also known from other ancient slave-holder societies ( paramonḗ ). OL did not result from the slave-patron relationship itself. Rather, freed men and -women were obliged by oath to their manumitters and repeated the obligation after being set free either in the same form or by  stipulatio . Only by means of this repetition could undertaking of OL bec…

[German version] Latin   crux or damnatio in crucem (‘sentencing to crucifixion’), Greek during the Hellenistic period ἀνασταύρωσις/ anastaúrōsis (which, however, in Hdt. 3,125 and probably also in Xenophon [10] of Ephesos 4,2 means ‘impaling’) was only one of several ways of exacting the  death penalty (II) in the Roman empire. It probably originated as deterrence against slaves in the context of the   coercitio (‘power of coercion’) by the   tresviri [1] capitales. Damnatio in crucem was perhaps based on Oriental and Punic precedents. At the time of the crucifixion of…

[German version] (also Vindex: Pompon. Dig. 1,2,2,24). A mythical figure in Roman historiography, e.g. Liv. 2,4,5-10. As a slave, V. is supposed to have discovered a plot by the Tarquinii (cf. Tarquinius [7; 12]) in 509 BC to restore rule by kings. As a reward he is supposed to have been freed and admitted to the status of Roman citizen. It is possible that these legends served as a 'historical' explanation for the fact that under Roman law manumission led to the acquisition of citizenship, and not…

[German version] I. Ancient Orient Codification of law, in the sense of the comprehensive and conclusive regulation of a major and more or less finite subject area, must be discounted for pre- and extra-Roman cultures, regardless of all ancient pronouncements (Egypt: Diod. Sic. 1,95,4f.; Greece: Aristot. Ath. Pol. 2,1273a 35 - 1274b 25) and modern discussions (‘Law of Ḫammurapi’: [11; 13]; Achaemenid empire: [4; 14; 16]) (see the articles in [5]; also [6; 13]). The collection, systematization or uni…

[German version] From a legal perspective, the head of a family in Rome was the most important person in the family (IV.B.), its 'king' as it were [1. 75]. As holder of patria potestas and manus , he held power at any rate over wife, children (even when adult), grandchildren and slaves. As the autocrat of the family, he was the only member to hold rights and privileges: he alone had the right to dispose of the family's property and only he acquired rights from contracts and other transactions. However, he incur…

[German version] I. General Robbery is the appropriation of a moveable object belonging to another with violence against that person or by the use of threats with present danger to life and limb and with intent to appropriate the object in contravention of the law (§ 249 German Criminal Code). In law, robbery is a combination of theft and duress. In the popular mind of today, robbery is regarded as a more serious offence than simple theft. However, in ancient legal systems and until the Middle Ages, theft (by stealth) was seen as worse than (public and violent) dispossession. Hengstl, Joachi…

[German version] A technical term in Roman law, and as such not to be understood in the broad sense of 'privilege' in the medieval and early modern periods, still less to be equated with the same word in modern colloquial usage, Roman privilegium was a 'law for an individual', and according to the Twelve Tables (tab. 9,1) impermissible as a law of proscription at the expense of an individual: it was forbidden to propose it in the popular assembly ( ne inroganto, Cic. Leg. 3,4,11). During the Principate, prerogatives of certain institutions and groups of people were denoted by means of privilegi…

[German version] The oath to be sworn to Roman law (  ius ) or before the court (at the praetor or iudex). The older type of oath is probably the   sacramentum , which however, from the late Republic onwards with the dying out of the legis actio sacramento, essentially described the soldier's oath. The ius iurandum was sworn by  Jupiter, all the gods or by the  genius of the emperor. The magistrates swore the existing laws with a ius iurandum in leges within five days of taking up office, and magistrates stepping down usually also swore the legitimacy of their administration …

[English version] In Rom der von einem Magistrat (dem jeweils höchsten in Rom anwesenden) durch Edikt angeordnete Stillstand der Rechtspflege, verbunden mit weiteren Einschränkungen des Geschäftsverkehrs, z.B. der Schließung der Staatskasse ( aerarium , Cic. har. resp. 55) oder der Läden auf dem Forum (Liv. 9,7,8). Der Anordnung dürfte mindestens in der späten Republik ein Senatsbeschluß vorausgegangen sein (Liv. 3,3,6). Das i. war nicht nur eine Notstandsmaßnahme, sondern kam schon in republikanischer Zeit auch aus Anlaß öffentlicher Trauer über eine mil…

[English version] Im röm. Recht hatte der paterfamilias in der Regel, solange er lebte, die väterliche Gewalt über seine Kinder. Eine Entlassung von Söhnen aus der Herrschaft des pater war nur durch ein sehr förmliches und kompliziertes Rechtsgeschäft möglich: die e. Sie knüpft an die förmliche Veräußerung durch mancipatio an, mit der nicht nur der dominus seine Sklaven verkaufen konnte, sondern auch der Vater seine Söhne. Durch diesen “Verkauf” gab der Vater den Sohn einem anderen pater in Dienst. Noch zur Zeit der Zwölf Tafeln (5. Jh.v.Chr.) stand außer dem “Verkauf” …

[English version] Im röm. Recht zunächst die einseitige Verstoßung der Ehefrau durch ihren Mann. Nach dem Wortsinn (von pudor, “Scham, Keuschheit”) wird das r. eine schwere Verfehlung (bes. Ehebruch, adulterium ) der Frau zur Voraussetzung gehabt haben. Nach den Zwölftafeln soll, wie Gai. Dig. 24,2,2,1 berichtet, der Mann die Frau beim r. aufgefordert haben, fortzugehen ( baete foras) und ihre Sachen mitzunehmen ( tuas res tibi habeto). Schon im 3. Jh. v. Chr. ist das r. ohne Schuld der Frau möglich (vgl. Gell. 4,3,1 f.); spätestens seit dem 1. Jh. v. Chr. kann die In…

[English version] I. Allgemein R. ist die Wegnahme einer fremden beweglichen Sache mit Gewalt gegen einen Menschen oder unter Anwendung von Drohungen mit gegenwärtiger Gefahr für Leib oder Leben in der Absicht, sich die Sache rechtswidrig zuzueignen (§ 249 StGB). Rechtlich ist R. eine Kombination von Diebstahl und Nötigung, im allgemeinen Empfinden wird R. h. als das gegenüber der einfachen Wegnahme schwerere Delikt aufgefaßt, in den ant. Rechtsordnungen und bis ins MA dagegen der (heimliche) Diebstahl für schlimmer als die (offene, gewalttätige) Wegnahme. Hengstl, Joachim (M…

[English version] Die Ehelosigkeit ( c.) war ein wichtiger Gegenstand gesellschaftlicher Bewertung und rechtlicher Regelung in Rom. In republikanischer Zeit hat sich, vielleicht nach frühen Vorläufern schon 403 v.Chr. (Val. Max. 2,9,1), der Zensor (102, nicht 131 v.Chr.) Q. Caecilius Metellus Numidicus in einer Rede vor dem Volk gegen die Ehe- und Kinderlosigkeit ausgesprochen (Gell. 1,6). Hieran knüpfte Augustus zur Begründung der lex Iulia de maritandis ordinibus, dem ersten Hauptstück seiner Ehegesetzgebung (18 v.Chr.), ausdrücklich an (Liv. 59). Durch dies…

[English version] I. Alter Orient R. im Sinne der zusammenfassenden und abschließenden Regelung eines größeren, mehr oder minder geschlossenen Sachgebiets ist für die vor- und außerröm. Kulturen ungeachtet aller antiken Nachrichten (Ägypten: Diod. 1,95,4 f.; Griechenland: Aristot. Ath. pol. 2,1273a 35 - 1274b 25) oder mod. Diskussionen (“Gesetz des Ḫammurapi”: [11; 13]; Achämenidenreich: [4; 14; 16]) auszuschließen (s. die Beiträge in [5]; ferner [6; 13]). Das Sammeln, Systematisieren oder Vereinheit…

[English version] Der t.t. für die röm. Freilassung (C.). Schiemann, Gottfried (Tübingen)

[English version] Die “Kinderlosen”, die nach röm. Recht seit Augustus gewisse Rechtsnachteile erfuhren: Zur Förderung des Kinderreichtums wurden Frauen mit mehreren Kindern nach der lex Iulia de maritandis ordinibus und nach der lex Papia begünstigt ( ius liberorum ) und als “Kehrseite” hiervon Kinderlose (Frauen wie Männer) in ihrer Fähigkeit ( capacitas) zum Erwerb von Erbschaften und Vermächtnissen beschränkt: Was den o. testamentarisch hinterlassen war, fiel ihnen nur zur Hälfte (dem überlebenden Ehegatten sogar nur zu einem Zehntel) zu. Der verbleibende Rest wurde als cad…

[English version] [1] s. Maske s. Maske Schiemann, Gottfried (Tübingen) [English version] [2] Juristisch Juristisch. P. ist zwar ein in die Gegenwartssprache eingegangenes Lehnwort aus dem Lat., hat dort aber noch überhaupt nicht die zentrale Bed. wie in der mod., nach-vernunftrechtlichen Rechtskultur (vgl. Person). Ulp. Dig. 50,17,22 pr. spricht zwar von einer p. versilis, also der Persönlichkeit (auch) eines Sklaven. Dies steht jedoch im Zusammenhang mit der Feststellung, daß den Sklaven gerade keine rechtlichen Ansprüche zustehen. Vielmehr war …

[English version] Der Ort der persönlichen Haft im röm. Recht wird von Varro ling. 5,151 von coercere abgeleitet, steht also in Zusammenhang mit der Befugnis des Magistrats zu unmittelbarer Gewaltanwendung ( coercitio ), nicht mit Sanktionen gegen strafbares Verhalten. ‘Der c. muß zur Verwahrung, nicht zur Bestrafung von Menschen unterhalten werden’: carcer enim ad continendos homines, non ad puniendos haberi debet (Ulp. Dig. 48,19,8,7). Für Privatdelikte wie für andere Obligationen, die zur Haftung des Schuldners mit seiner eigenen Person führten, regel…

[English version] Von der i., auch ignoratio (Unkenntnis), handelt eine alte röm. Rechtsregel. Nach Paulus (3. Jh. n.Chr., Dig. 22,6,9 pr.) lautet sie: iuris i. nocet, facti vero i. non nocet (‘Rechtsunkenntnis schadet, Tatsachenunkenntnis aber nicht’). Seit dem MA spricht man eher von Irrtum ( error). Bei den Römern hat man error und i. vermutlich gleich bewertet: Der Rechtsirrtum hindert weder die Verantwortlichkeit für eigenes (“straf”- wie zivilrechtliches) Verhalten, noch die Wirksamkeit des consensus bei Rechtsgeschäften unter Lebenden oder …

[English version] hat im röm. Recht zweifache Bed.: Zum einen bezeichnet es das “Maß” v.a. von Grundstücken, zum anderen - der Sache nach - dasselbe wie der mod. Begriff der Auflage (bei einer Schenkung oder einer testamentarischen Begünstigung). M. agri (die Grundstücksgröße) war Gegenstand einer aus Paul. sent. 2,17,4 bekannten Klage ( actio de modo agri): War der Preis für ein Grundstück nach der Größe seiner Fläche berechnet, konnte der Erwerber als Privatstrafe vom Veräußerer das Doppelte des anteiligen Preises verlangen, wenn sich herausstellt…

[English version] Im röm. Recht das einseitige Versprechen, eine Mitgift ( dos ) zu gewähren. Proculus (Dig. 50,16,125) gibt das Formular zu dieser Erklärung mit den Worten wieder: dotis filiae meae tibi erunt aurei centum (‘als Mitgift für meine Tochter werden dir 100 Goldstücke zur Verfügung stehen’). Außer dem Brautvater konnten auch andere männliche Vorfahren der Braut, die Braut selbst und gemäß ihrer Anweisung ihr Schuldner (z.B. ihr früherer Ehemann, der ihr die dos, die er seinerzeit bei der Eheschließung der Frau erhalten hatte, aufgrund der actio rei uxoriae herausgeben m…

[English version] Das Wort c. verwendeten die Römer, wann immer es um die Todesstrafe (auch poena capitis) ging: für das Verbrechen selbst, das Strafverfahren und den Ausspruch und Vollzug der Strafe, aber auch bei Verlust der persönlichen Freiheit oder des Bürgerrechts ( deminutio capitis ) und insbes. beim Exil ( exilium ), seitdem diese in spätrepublikanischer Zeit tatsächlich an die Stelle der Todesstrafe für röm. Bürger getreten war. Schiemann, Gottfried (Tübingen) Bibliography E. Cantarella, I supplizi capitali in Grecia e a Roma, 1991.