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1. Definition, origin, and profileThe term  Lutheranism (German  Luthertum) was coined in 1544. Like the more common terms  die Lutherischen,  Lutherani, Lutheranismus, and so on, it was originally a pejorative exonym, implying the charge of heresy, applied to the adherents of the Reformation, who since the activities of Martin Luther in 1517 had been vigorously flexing their ecclesiastical and political muscles. Luther himself disliked the expression  Lutheran; therefore the churches that reorganized themselves on the basis of regional church orders (begin…

The sense of living in the end time because “this world” was coming to an end was a prevailing belief of the early modern period until the 18th century (World view). Its religious basis was the assumption in Christian apocalypticism that Jesus Christ heralded the end of the history of salvation. The time “after Christ,” that is, between his coming and his return for the Last Judgment and the universal establishment of the Kingdom of God in a new world (Eschatology), was accordingly seen as a fin…

1. Terminology and background 1.1. Apocalypticism and apocalypseThe term “apocalypticism” (German  …

1. The complexity of the conceptThe term world (German  die Welt, French le monde) is extremely ambiguous and modifiable (see, for example, Ages of the world; Weltanschauung; World view; World perception; World literature; Topsy-Turvy World). Current usage includes both the plural  worlds, that is, supposedly meaningful totalities (“th…

[German Version] (born Degen; 1511, Schorndorf – May 9, 1587, Tübingen), professo…

[German Version] ( Jan 1, 1655, Leipzig – Sep 23, 1728, Halle), was a prominent philosopher of law during the early German Enlightenment. Born into a Lutheran family of scholars (father Jakob Thomasius), Christian Thomasius studied philosophy in Leipzig from 1669 onward; from 1672 onward, after having read the works of H. Grotius and S. Pufendorf, he studied jurisprudence in Frankfurt an der Oder (Samuel Stryk), where he was awarded a doctoral degree in 1679. Enjoying little success as a lawyer, T…

[German Version] (Nov 30, 1702, Zell am Main – Dec 19/20, 1749, Wolfenbüttel), translator of the so-called Wertheim Bible. The son of a clergyman, Schmidt studied philosophy and theology at Jena (with J.F. Buddeus) and was appointed tutor to the comital (i.e. Protestant) House of Löwenstein-Wertheim. In this position he worked on a Bible translation, the first portion of which, the Pentateuch, was published by his pupils in 1735 ( Die göttlichen Schriften vor den Zeiten des Messie Jesus...). It triggered four years of public debate throughout Germany. Primarily at the ins…

[German Version] (c. 1538, Halle/Saale – Nov 30, 1611, Wolfenbüttel), Lutheran theologian. Hoffmann was appointed professor of philosophy in Helmstedt in 1574/1576 and professor of theology in 1578. In association with V. Strigel, S. Musäus, and T. Heßhus, Hoffmann attempted to preserve the integrity of Luther's doctrine against Philippistic (P. Melanchthon) and Flacian (M. Flacius) deviations, but also, while defending the Lutheran doctrine of the Eucharist, against the “new dogma” of u…

[German Version] (Hutterus; Jan 1563, Nellingen near Ulm – Oct 23, 1616, Wittenberg), after studying the arts and theology in Strasbourg (M.A. 1583), Heidelberg and Jena, he received the Dr.theol. in Leipzig (1593) and became professor of theology in Wittenberg (1596) alongside P. Leyser, Sr. and A. Hunn (Hunnius). Like them, Hütter was a policy advocate and theological interpreter of the Formula of Concord: as orthodox scriptural exegesis, it was the result, as was the Augsburg Confession ( …

[German Version] (Jun 4, 1753, Frankfurt am Main – Feb 17, 1826, Jena), Protestant theologian, became professor of OT at Altdorf in 1785, and at Jena in 1804, where he had studied OT and NT exegesis from 1772 to 1778 with J.G. Eichhorn and J.J. Griesbach. Linked with theological neology (Enlightenment: II, 4.c), but not a rationalist, Gabler successfully developed the program (Mar 30, 1787) for the methodological separation of a “biblical theology” set apart from variable dogmatics by historical e…

[German Version] (Jan 1, 1901, Etzelwang – Oct 26, 1997, Erlangen). A disciple of F. Brunstäd (Dr.phil. 1923) and K. Heim (Lic.theol. 1927), Künneth was appointed to the Apologetische Centrale in Berlin in 1926 and was its director from 1932. As a cofounder of the Jungreformatorische Bewegung (reform movement), he was prohibited from public speaking and writing in 1937. He became pastor in Starnberg in 1938 and dean in Erlangen in 1944, where he was made honorary professor in 1946 and professor of…

[German Version] (Oct 1, 1589, Cölln an der Spree – Aug 19[?], 1634, Berlin) was rector of the Gymnasium zum Grauen Kloster in Berlin from 1618 onward. As a philosophical author he professed the Wittenberg Aristotelianism of his teacher J. Martini in …

[German Version] (Dec 6, 1589, Armsfeld, Waldeck – Nov 10, 1653, Dortmund), Lutheran philosopher and theologian. In 1610 he was appointed professor of Greek, logic, and metaphysics at Gießen and served as rector. In 1625 he was appointed superintendent and gymnasiarch in Dortmund. A prolific writer, Scheibler gave Lutheran Scholastic Aristotelianism a distinctive character vis-à-vis Wittenberg (J. Martini): in its more didactic logic, which included Ramist motifs ( Opus logicum, 1613), and in its metaphysics, which was oriented sapientially as well as ontologically and valued whatever was plausible in service of the vita philosophica. Without separating out a pneumatology (G…

[German Version] ( Jan 5, 1548, Granada – Sep 25, 1617, Lisbon), SJ, leading theologian, philosopher, and legal theorist of Spanish Scholasticism. Suárez studied in Salamanca. Initially rejected for lack of aptitude, he was accepted into the Jesuits in 1564. In 1571 he began teaching philosophy in Segovia; after 1574 he taught theology in Valladolid, Segovia, and Alcalá. In 1580 he began teaching at the Collegium Romanum in Rome. In 1585 sickness forced him to return to Alcalá, where he succeeded …

[German Version] (Hornejus, Horn; Nov 25, 1590, Braunschweig – Sep 26, 1649, Helmstedt), philosophy student of Johannes Caselius and, also theological student of Cornelius Martini. In 1619 he became extraordinary professor of logic and ethics; in 1622, of metaphysics as the successor of Martini; and in 1628, the second professor of theology beside Georg Calixtus. Less innovative than the latter but a successful academic, teacher, and author, philosophically and theologically, Horneius embodied the…

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[German Version] (Aug 13, 1617, Quedlinburg – May 22, 1688, Wittenberg). After the death of his uncle, J. Gerhard, this scion of a patrician family was forced by war to study in nearby Helmstedt ¶ (G. Calixtus, K. Horneius); in 1644, however, he did go to Wittenberg (W. Leyser, J. Hülsemann), where in 1649 he was appointed adjunct professor in the faculties of philosophy and theology. He wrote quite a few geographical and antiquarian works. After receiving his doctorate in 1650, in 1660 he was appointed to the fourth chair of the…

1. AllgemeinDer Ausdruck S. (engl. syncretism; franz. syncrétisme) wurde in der Nz. zuerst von Erasmus von Rotterdam in Aufnahme eines antiken griech. Terminus ( synkrētismós) gebraucht, der den Kretern unterstellte, sie würden ihren inneren Streit bei äußerer Bedrohung begraben und zusammenhalten. Erasmus empfahl S. bei Streitigkeiten, die er auf unchristl. Rachsucht zurückführte. Sich trotz relig. Differenzen polit. zu verbünden, hielt er, wie auch Ulrich Zwingli oder …

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1. BegriffVorstellungen vom jenseitigen Leben finden sich bei fast allen Völkern und zu fast allen Zeiten. Doch der Begriff J. existiert im Deutschen, ebenso wie sein Gegenstück, das »Diesseits«, erst seit der Wende zum 19. Jh. Das Substantiv J. findet sich erst seit Ende des 18. Jh.s vereinzelt in den Quellen – so etwa 1781 in Schillers Räubern der Ausruf: »Sei wie du willst, namenloses Jenseits, wenn ich nur mich selbst mit hinübernehme« [12. 4. Akt, 5. Szene] – bevor der Ausdruck seit den frühen 1830er Jahren weitere weltanschauliche Verbreitung fand.Die begriffliche Gestalt d…

1. Begriffe und TraditionenDie menschlichen Erfahrungen, die zum Glauben an eine asymmetrische Dualität von L. und Seele Anlass geben (Schlaf, Traum, Ekstase, Schmerz, Tod und Geburt [9]), hatten sich in Europa bis zum Beginn der Nz. metaphysisch, anthropologisch und epistemologisch verdichtet [12. Kap. III und V]: Was geschieht mit einem Individuum nach seinem leiblichen Tod? Wodurch unterscheidet sich beseeltes Sein von unbelebtem Sein und toter Materie? Wie hängt speziell der erkennende Teil der S., der Geist, mit dem Körper zusammen? Letztere Frage wird (nur) im Deut…

1. Begriff…

1. Metaphysik1.1. Begriff und VorgeschichteDer Begriff der U. (engl. infinity, franz. infinité) wird häufig uneigentlich (metaphorisch) für sehr große oder unbekannte Größen verwendet (»unendliche Tiefe des Meeres«), sodass der eigentliche Gebrauch in den Hintergrund tritt. »Das Unendliche« (= Unendl.; lat. infinitum, griech. ápeiron, »das Grenzenlose«, »Unbestimmte«) im eigentlichen Sinne ist jedoch seit den Anfängen der griech. Philosophie ein präziser, dem »Endlichen« konstrastierter math. und metaphysischer Begriff; unklar war allerdings oft, wie sich der mit Zahlen (s. u. 2.) und der mit der Wirklichkeit verbundene Begriff der U. zueinander verhalten.…

1. BegriffDas um 1770 aus dem franz. progrès gebildete Wort »F.« bezeichnet wie dieses und seine Äquivalente (engl. progress, improvement, advancement; ital. progresso) die spezifisch nzl. Auffassung geschichtlicher Bewegung und Veränderung im Unterschied zu älteren Bewegungsbegriffen wie »W…

1. Term Ideas about life after death are to be found among nearly all peoples and in nearly every era. Yet, like its counterpart Diesseits (“this life”), the term Jenseits…

1. The termThe English noun  progress (in the sense of advancement or improvement; from Latin progressus via Old French  progres) came into use around 1600. Like its equivalents (French  progrès, German Fortschritt, Italian  progresso), it denotes the specifically early modern view of historical movement and change in contrast to earlier concepts of movement such as journey, growth, and development. It is true, t…

1. Metaphysics 1.1. Concept and prior historyThe term “infinity” (French infinité; German  Unendlichkeit) is often used figuratively (metaphorically) to denote very large or unknown values (“infinite depths of the ocean”), so that its literal use has faded into the background. “The infinite” (Latin  infinitum, Greek  ápeiron, “the boundless”, “the indeterminate”) in the strict sense, however, has since t…

1. ConceptPalingenesis (Greek palingenesía, Latin  renascentia, German  Wiedergeburt, literally “rebirth”) in the early modern period was mostly the Christian metaphor for the (singular) process of a spiritual birth of a person comparable to their physical birth, that is, second birth, a prerequisite for eternal life. The origins of the concept in Jesus’ conversation with Nicodemus (Jo 3) were remembered, and like the Pauline formula of “new creation,” it was from the outset associated with the act of …

1. Historical surveyThe term syncretism (French  syncrétisme, German  Synkretismus) was first used in the early modern period by Erasmus of Rotterdam with reference to the classical Greek term  synkrētismós, which implied that the Cretans would bury their internal conflicts and unite in the face of external threats. Erasmus counseled syncretism in dealing with controversies, which he ascribed to un-Christian vindictiveness. He believed it was possible to join in a political alliance despite religious differences – as did …

1. DefinitionThe term world view was coined in the Middle Ages as a translation of Latin  forma ideaque mundi (form and idea of the world) or  imago mundi (image of the world), but it remained marginal in the early modern period. Other terms were used or introduced for the coherent totality of the manifold phenomena of the world: in scientific contexts, people spoke of physics, natural philosophy, or  cosmologia generalis (general theory of the world, 1731; Christian Wolff), in pedagogical contexts of  orbis sensualium pictus (“Sensible World Painted,” 1658; in German edit…

1. Terminology and traditions At the beginning of the early modern period in Europe, the human experiences that give rise to belief in an asymmetrical duality of body and soul (sleep, dreams, ecstasy, grief, death, and childbirth [9]) had coalesced metaphysically, anthropologically, and epistemologically [12. ch. III and V]…

[German Version] I. Religious Studies – II. Dogmatics – III. Philosophy of Religion I. Religious Studies R. Otto used the concept of the demonic in close association with the concept of the numinous, which occupied the center of his theory of religion. The essence of the numinous includes the element of the tremendum, the unnerving or unsettling element corresponding on the human side to numinous or religious awe – whose “preliminary stage” according to Otto is demonic awe ( Das Heilige, ch. 4.a). This understanding corresponds to a similar understanding in antiquity, which distinguished between the terms “demon” ( …

1. DefinitionWie das sakrale Gebäude (Kirchenbau) ist auch die K. im nzl. Europa überall und durchgehend als christl. erkennbar. Die wichtigsten Stücke der K. sind der Altar (oder ein ihn ersetzender Tisch; vgl. Altarbaukunst), der Taufstein und die Kanzel bzw. ein Lesepult; dazu kam seit dem Spät-MA eine Orgel (zunächst in größeren Kirchen, im 19. Jh. auch in der kleinsten Dorfkirche; Orgelmusik), sowie ein bewegliches oder festes Gestühl, z. B. das Chorgestühl in Klosterkirchen oder das Gemeindegestühl v. a. in protest. Kirchen. An diesen g…

1. BegriffA. (von grie…

1. Begriff und historischer KontextDer dt. Kollektivsingular P. kam erst im 18. Jh. auf, während das engl. und das franz. Wort ( protestantism, protestantisme) schon im 16. Jh. gebräuchlich wurden. Aber auch P. bezieht sich auf die reformatorischen Protest- und Reformbewegungen des 16. Jh.s und bezeichnet alle christl. Kirchen, Freikirchen und Gruppen, die daraus hervorgegangen sind und sich meist auf die Reformatoren Martin Luther, Philipp Melanchthon, Martin Butzer, Ulrich Zwingli und Johannes Calvin berufen (Reformation 2.). Der Begriff betont das den Konfessionen (Luther…

1. BegriffF. ist ein Begriff aus der Zeit der nordamerikan. Religionskämpfe des frühen 20. Jh.s. Für die Nz. hat er insoweit Bedeutung, als die Erschließung von spätmodernen Religionskonflikten dazu beitragen kann, die für die nzl. Gesellschaften Europas typischen religiösen Auseinandersetzungen, konfessionellen Antagonismen und dogmatischen Kontroversen über religiöse Identitäts-Konstruktionen neu zu verstehen.Der Begriff F. wurde im Kontext der religionspolitischen Kämpfe zwischen konkurrierenden Gruppen im Protestantismus der USA um 1920 gebildet. Zunehme…

1. DefinitionM. (mittellat. metaphysica, von griech. ta metá physiká, »das, was [im Kanon der aristotelischen Lehrbereiche] nach der Natur kommt«) ist der seit der Antike überlieferte Name für eine theoretische Disziplin, die sich nicht mit einzelnen Gegenständen als solchen befasste, sondern mit allem, insofern es ist und (daher auch) gedacht werden kann: dem Sein alles Seienden. Die M. galt daher seit …

1. DefinitionLike the sacral building itself (Church architecture), the church interiors in early modern Europe were all clearly recognizable as Christian. The most important features were the altar (or a table replacing it; see Altar design), font, and pulpit or lectern; from the late Middle Ages on, there was also an organ (initially in the larger churches, in the 19th century even in the smallest village churches; Organ music), as well as movable or permanent seating, e.g. choir stalls in mona…

1. DefinitionMetaphysics (Middle Latin  metaphysica, from Greek  ta metá physiká, “the [works traditionally arranged] after the Physics [in the Aristotelian canon]”) has since Greco-Roman antiquity been the traditional name for a theoretical discipline that deals not with individual objects as such, but with everything that is and can (therefore) be thought about: the Sein alles Seienden (Heidegger: the "being of all that is being"). Si…

1. Terminology The word atheism (from Greek átheos, “without  God”, “godless”) denotes both a complex variety of interpretations of the world and life-designs shaped by conscious rejection of the existence of one or more gods, transcendent beings, or powers (positive atheism) and a conscious denial of the earthly influence of such gods or powers, while simultaneously recognizing the theoretical possibility of their existence (negative atheism). Terms such as “God,” “creator,” “absolute,” “supreme being…

1. The term and its historical contextThe collective singular noun Protestantism and its French equivalent  protestantisme were already in use in the 16th century; the German  Protestantismus did not come into use until the 18th century. The term refers to the protest and reform movements of the 16th-century Reformation and denotes all the Christian churches, free churches, and groups that emerged from it, most of which appealed to the Reformers Martin Luther, Philipp Melanchthon, Martin Bucer, Huldrych Zwingli, and John Calvin (Reformation 2.). The term emphasizes the common heritage of the confessional denominations (Lutheranism, Calvinism, Anglicanism, Baptists) and religious reform movements (Pietism, Methodism, Puritanism, revivalist movements), which transcends the doctrinal differences that became fixed in the confessions of faith (denominations) of the 16th and early …

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1. Philosophie und Theologie 1.1. Begriff und kultureller KontextP. (lat. persona) stammt aus der antiken Bühnensprache, wo es das Gesicht, d. h. die Maske, also die Rollenidentität des Schauspielers bezeichnete; in institutionellen Zusammenhängen wurde das Wort auf den individuellen Inhaber von Rechten und Pflichten sowie auf die polit., seit dem MA auch auf die kirchl. Amts- und Würdenträger übertragen und in der Grammatik auf die drei möglichen Instanzen des Sprechens angewandt, d. h. auf die 1., 2. und 3. P. Dies war der Anknüpfungspunkt für die Ausbildung eines neuen P.-Begriffs in der frühen christl. Theologie: P. bezeichnet sowohl die …

1. AllgemeinDas Wort W. (lat. veritas, franz. vérité) bedeutete indogerman. »Achtung«, »Zustimmung«, »Treue« (daher engl. truth); auch griech. alḗtheia (wörtlich »Unverborgenheit«) wurde für die Begriffsgeschichte wichtig. Die lebenspraktischen Frage…

1. Lutheran Orthodoxy 1.1. Epoch The term “Lutheran orthodoxy” (sometimes “old Lutheran orthodoxy” or “old Protestant orthodoxy”) is ill adapted to describe this specific form of Reformation Christianity, which extended between the Reformation and the Enlightenment. Radical Pietism called the period orthodox because of (1) its interest in pure doctrine alone and not also in a holy life in devout fellowship and (2) the alliance between ecclesiastical and secular government. But this summary was a cari…

1. Philosophy and theology 1.1. Definition and cultural contextThe word person (Latin  persona) originates from ancient theater, where it was used to indicate the mask worn by an actor and hence also the identity of his role; in institutional contexts, the word was transferred to the individual holder of rights and duties, as well as to political and (since the Middle Ages) ecclesiastical officials and dignitaries. In grammar, the word is used for the three possible speakers of a verb, that is, the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd person. This …

[German Version] I. New Testament – II. Dogma and the History of Dogma – III. Art History I. New Testament Christ's descent into hell, i.e. his descent to the underworld, the realm of the dead, is, as Descensus ad inferos, one of the christological statements of the early and medieval church's …

[German Version] I. Religious Studies Experience is a process occurring directly in the conscious mind, whereby the perceiving subject and internal as well as external objects of the conscious mind link up to form an experience, representing a separate category, which is connected episodically with the moment in which a particular perception occurs. (Religious) experience (Ger. Erlebnis) is the subjective perception of an experience (Ger. Erfahrung). An experience is participation in an event; the accumulation of experiences generates knowledge. An event is classified as religious by means of metaphorically structured interpretation patterns that are defined by a specific tradition (in language, gestures, cult …

[German Version] I. Philosophy of Religion The phenomenon of unio mystica within mysticism is of interest to the philosophy of religion because recent analytical approaches in religious studies and the psychology of religion permit a more precise assessment of the philosophical issues involved, and also because it brings to light (so much better) a philosophically discussable connection between religious behavior or experience and rational cognition (Epistemology). Although the term itself is not always used, the cognizing individual’s experience or pursuit of union …

1. Einleitung 1.1. AllgemeinIn der Nz. gehören S. zur relig. Praxis aller christl. Kirchen, wenngleich mit unterschiedlichem Gewicht und in unterschiedlichem Verständnis. Gemeinsam ist jedoch der Glaube, dass die Feier der S., wie die Verkündigung des Wortes Gottes, zum Wesen der christl. Kirche gehört und dass S., obwohl von Menschen vollzogen, der Verheißung Jesu Christi Raum geben, seiner Gemeinde nicht nur geistig, sondern auch leibhaft erfahrbar gegenwärtig zu sein und sie an dem ewigen Heilsgut teilhaben…