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1. DefinitionThe term  communication revolution was coined in the first half of the 20th century by American economic historians with reference to their own national history [3]; since the 1970s, it has usually appeared in the plural (communications revolutions) [7]. It was subsequently borrowed by German scholars as  Kommunikationsrevolution [11]; [9. 2, 51 f.]; they have attempted to redefine it with reference to macrohistorical processes.Modeled after the concept of the industrial revolution (cf. Industrialization 1.3.), a series of fundamental rev…

1. ConceptWorld time is a time considered to be valid across the whole planet and dependent on the Earth’s orbit about the Sun. Agreement was reached at the 1884 International Meridian Conference, held at Washington, D.C., to stipulate the zero meridian as passing through Greenwich, England, and to establish Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) as the first universally valid world time (see below, 2.).This mean local time, established by astronomical measurements, on the meridian passing through the Greenwich Observatory, was renamed Universal Time in 1928, and…

1. IntroductionZedler’s  Universallexikon (1743) offers only biblical quotations on the subject of “quickness” ( Schnelligkeit) – a value in itself in opposition to “slowness” since the late modern period in such areas as working life, communications, or sport. The article on “speed” ( Geschwindigkeit; 1735), meanwhile, was written by a physicist who defined his subject by means of the formula  v= s/t, citing the example of the motion of two messengers, one of whom covered one (German) mile in one hour, the other in two. Even in the early modern period…

1. DefinitionIn contrast to the cyclic phenomena of the natural world (see Cyclicality), the term  periodicity denotes the artificial generation of a rhythm at equal intervals that influences the everyday world and functions as a time base shorter than a year for social processes independent of astronomical phenomena. Periodicity is usually associated with the periodical press, but its periodicity is based on the early modern configuration of communication.Wolfgang Behringer2. The annus mirabilis of the communication system1534 was the  annus mirabilis of the Euro…

1. Concept and significance Relation aller Fürnemmen und gedenckwürdigen Historien (“Relation of all Polite and Noteworthy Histories”) was the title of the world’s first printed periodical newspaper – alongside the invention of printing with movable type, one of the key manifestations of the media revolution of the early modern period. The publisher consciously emphasized the currentness of the news content (News, currentness of; Aviso) in conjunction with the durability of the printed word. Like the inv…

1. ConceptIn a general sense, communication (Latin  communicatio, “making common,” “imparting”) denotes all possible forms of exchange within and between systems. Scholarly definitions have been developed in all fields from biology to sociology, but not even within the social sciences are such definitions transferable. Historiography turned its attention to the theme of communication only at a late date.Communication takes place on the microhistorical as on the macrohistorical scale. In a historical perspective, the introduction of new media of comm…

The concept of the network, as developed in sociology in the late 20th century [8], can also be applied to earlier eras and is useful as a measure of structural development in the organization of the everyday world [7]. A distinction must be made between (1) networks supported by people or institutions, and (2) material forms of infrastructure that placed communications as a whole on a new foundation and brought media revolutions [2]. Further distinctions can be made between organizational and structural/material levels. On the whole it can be said that incre…

1. Terminology The modern term  sport was already in use at the beginning of the early modern period; it is derived from Anglo-Norman  se desportes (French  se deporter, “enjoy oneself, amuse oneself”). Thus it denoted activities which serve to pass the time. In early modern German, these activities came under the heading of  Kurzweil (pastime; see Pleasure). Besides physical competition (Contest) [1] and physical exercise (Latin  exercitia corporis), sports included animal fights (“blood sports”) and competitive games (Play, game) of all kinds, including…

According to the definition of curse (German  Fluch) in Zedler's  Universal-Lexicon, a curse is “a speech by which we wish someone ill” [1. 1337]. In fact, to wish well (Latin  benedicere) and to wish ill (Latin  maledicere) are linked. Both rely on belief in the power of the word, particularly when that word is spoken by an authority adhering to particular formulae and rituals. To this category belong so-called “curse psalms” and “curse masses.” The curse is a counterpart to the prayer, which, directed to God, is intended to pro…

1. Educational ideal From the Renaissance on, Humanist pedagogues attempted to associate the love of ball games with ancient traditions (e.g. Galen), but the modern term derives not from the Latin pila but from the Germanic  ball (Italian  palla). Humanist teachers and princes’ tutors of the 15th century, like Vittorino da Feltre and Guarino da Verona, ennobled the ball game by placing it alongside equestrian exercises. Baldassare Castiglione’s Courtier ( Cortegiano, 1528) admitted it to the Olympus of noble education. Ball games went to the heart of the ed…

1. MeaningChristmas, the festival of the “birthday of the Lord” (Latin: nativitatis Domini, natalis Domini), has been celebrated on December 25 since 354, probably in order to suppress the birthday festival of the pagan god Sol Invictus (the Unconquered Sun). The Christmas liturgy is informed by thanksgiving for the birth of Jesus Christ and the associated Christian hope for redemption. The English designation as “the mass of Christ” is attested since late Middle English ( Christes mæsse). The German word  Weihnachten (literally “consecrated” or “holy night”), though usu…

1. OriginsFrom the Renaissance, it increasingly became essential to politics and emergent merchant capitalism for information to be up to date. This led to the formation of specialist systems for the professional conveyance of news. Cities, courts, monasteries, and merchants employed couriers (Messenger service). According to the sources, the first relays of mounted couriers were set up by Duke Giangaleazzo Visconti (1395–1402) of Milan. They produced the earliest surviving remains of the time sh…

1. Terminology The German word for gymnastics, Turnen, was coined by Friedrich Ludwig Jahn in the early 19th century, with some ideological baggage (Gymnastics Movement 1.); the equivalents in other languages (Eng.  gymnastics, Ital.  ginnastica, etc.) show that the kinds of sport subsumed under the term can look back on a long tradition. Gymnastics includes floor exercises, apparatus work, vaulting, and acrobatic and general gymnastic exercises. Today the German Gymnastics Association and the  Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique also include dancing, ball gam…

1. DefinitionWhile in the modern theory of political economy (Economy, political),  shortage denotes a condition in the process of price formation, in traditional societies the volume of goods does not simply follow the logic of the market. Instead a shortage (or scarcity) can be described as a chronic condition that can be explained on the basis of the logic of the agrarian constitution, the low productivity of agriculture, and social ideas regarding the distribution of goods.Wolfgang Behringer2. CrisesThe fact that premodern Europe was afflicted repeatedly by severe…

In der platonischen Naturlehre (Platonismus) und in der Medizin des ant. Arztes Galen (Humoralpathologie) war das Sehen ein aktiver Vorgang. In den A. glühte kaltes Feuer, dessen Strahlen von den A. zu den Gegenständen ausgesandt wurden. Wie in Indien oder Arabien war auf dieser Grundlage auch in Europa die Vorstellung verbreitet, optische Wahrnehmung (Optik) entstehe dadurch, dass der vom A. ausgehende Strahl den Gegenstand beleuchte. Im Zusammenhang damit standen Vorstellungen vom scharfen Blick, mit dem best…

1. Natürliche Rhythmen 1.1. DefinitionDer Rh. (von griech. rhythmós, »Fließen«, »Gleichmaß«) als gleichmäßig gegliederte Bewegung bzw. regelmäßige Wiederkehr bestimmter Merkmale ist ein wesentliches Element zur Gliederung von Zeit. Er gliedert astronomische oder »natürliche« (u. a. Jahreszeiten), physikalische (u. a. Pendel), biologische (u. a. Zellteilung, Herzschlag, Atmung), psychische (psychische Abläufe in Kongruenz zur Biorhythmik) und kulturelle Prozesse (vgl. Periodizität). Darüber hinaus ist er ein grundlegendes …

1. Allgemein Das R. (lat. domus consulum, ital. palazzo pubblico, franz. hôtel de ville, engl. town hall) setzt die Entstehung einer städtischen Selbstverwaltung (lat. consules; Rat) in Abgrenzung vom königlichen, bischöflichen oder adligen Stadtherrn voraus, wie sie in Europa seit dem hohen MA zu beobachten ist.R. als Ausdruck städtischen republikanischen Selbstbewusstseins traten erstmals im 13. Jh. in Nord- und Mittelitalien auf und verbreiteten sich in der Zeit der Renaissance (ca. 1300–1600) nach Norden. Repräsentative R. waren insbes. in Gebieten mit hoher städ…

1. Drohung im RechtIm Bereich des Strafrechts bedeutete D. das Inaussichtstellen eines Übels, dessen Verwirklichung vom Verhalten des Bedrohten abhing. Diese Form der Nötigung oder Erpressung gehörte in der Nz. zum Tatbestandsmerkmal verschiedenster Verbrechen, z. T. mit direktem sprachlichen Niederschlag wie bei der »Notzucht« (Vergewaltigung), aber auch bei Raub oder Mord, gegen welche jede Form der Notwehr zulässig war [3. Art. 139–145]. D. spielten auch bei Verbrechen, die dem Landfriedens-Bruch subsumiert wurden, oder bei politischen Verbrechen wie…

1. Allgemein 1.1. Probleme der DefinitionUnter »Fühlen, Gefühl« verstand noch Zedlers Universallexikon in der Mitte des 18. Jh.s »einen der fünf äußerlichen Sinne, der sich über den ganzen Leib ausbreitet« [1], also den Tastsinn (lat. tactus). Emotionen wie Liebe, Eifersucht, Neid, Melancholie oder Traurigkeit, die man heute unter dem Begriff G. subsumieren würde, werden hingegen als »Gemüths-Neigung«, als »Gemüths-Beschaffenheit« oder als »Gemüths-Bewegung« beschrieben.G. sind tief in der Entwicklungsgeschichte der Menschheit verankert. Sie sind als Grun…

1. AllgemeinesEtymologisch hängt das dt. Wort Z. mit tide zusammen, dem Wechsel der Gezeiten. Sie ist also anthropozentrisch konstruiert und spiegelt die Wahrnehmung der zyklischen oder linearen Veränderung der äußeren Welt wider. Wie beim lat. tempus oder dem engl. time (vgl. franz. temps, ital. tempo) ist eine begrenzte Z., ein Z.-Abschnitt gemeint. Zedlers Universal-Lexicon definiert Z. als »eine gewisse und determinierte Verweilung der Gestirne in ihrem Lauffe, wornach das Seyn und Dauern anderer Dinge gemessen wird« [2. 725].Vielfach wurde die Z. bildlich dargestell…

1. Overview The town hall (Latin  domus consulum, Italian  palazzo pubblico, French  hôtel de ville, German Rathaus) presupposes the emergence of municipal self-government (Latin  consules; Council [administrative]) as distinct from being under a royal, episcopal, or noble town overlord, as had been common in Europe since the high Middle Ages.Town halls as expressions of municipal republican self-confidence appeared for the first time in the 13th century in northern and central Italy and spread northwards during the Renaissance (c. 1300–1600)…

1. General 1.1. Problems of definitionEmotions are deeply rooted in human developmental history. As a fundamental phenomenon of subjective experience, they were common to humans and higher animals, and are based on a physiological state with measurable physical reactions (e.g. changes in pulse or breathing, motor expression in mime and gesture). However, they are characterized by cultural variation [4] in the expression and moral evaluation of emotions, as well as in their precise definition and frequency. To this extent, emotions are also subject …

1. Natural rhythms 1.1. DefinitionRhythm (from the Greek  rhythmós, “measured flow,” “symmetry”), the regular metrical movement or recurrence of a phenomenon, is a key element in the subdivision of time. It divides up astronomical, “natural” (e.g. seasons), physical (e.g. the pendulum), biological (e.g. cell division, heartbeat, breath), psychological (mental processes congruent to biorhythms), and cultural processes (see Periodicity). It also forms a fundamental structural element of complex cultural p…

1. LawIn the area of criminal law,  threat meant the prospect of a harm whose realization depends on the conduct of the person threatened. In the early modern period, this form of duress or extortion was one of the criteria for a wide range of crimes, in part with a direct verbal element as in the case of Notzucht (Rape), but also in cases of robbery or murder, against which any form of self-defense was permitted [3. Art. 139–145]. Threats also played a role in crimes subsumed under breach of the king’s peace and in political crimes like rebellion (Revolt; Resist…

A. Bildung and culture 1. Epochs 1. 1. The year 1450: an appropriate beginning?The question whether the middle of the 15th century marked the beginning of a new epoch can clearly be answered affirmatively for the history of European culture and  Bildung. From the perspective of other historical disciplines such as economic history, social history, or gender studies, there may be good reasons to challenge such a definition; for the domain of culture and Bildung, however, any expert will agree. Seen historically, the current concept of the early modern period as …

Platonic natural science (Platonism) and the medical theory of the ancient physician Galen (Humoralism) held vision to be an active process. A cold fire glowed in the eye, and its rays were emitted towards objects. As in India and Arabia, the idea formed from this in Europe that optical perception (Optics) came about as the ray emitted by the eye illuminated the object. In this context, there also emerged ideas of the sharp gaze with which some people dominate others, see through them, or influence their mood, and superstitious notions of the evil eye (Latin  invidia), with which those w…

1. IntroductionThe proverbial “time and tide” (the latter etymologically related to the German Zeit, “time”) respectively denote time as abstract concept, “extent” (“a time of plenty”), or “point” (“what time is it?”), and as “season” (ccompare “eventide”, “Christmastide”, “ocean tides”). All these concepts are anthropocentric, and reflect perceptions of cylical and linear changes in the phenomenal world. Zedlers Universal-Lexicon defines Zeit as “a certain and determined sojourn of the celestial bodies in their paths according to which the being an…

1. Begriff und Hauptcharakteristik der neuzeitlichen HexeAls H. bzw. Hexer werden Menschen bezeichnet, denen von ihrer sozialen Umwelt die Fähigkeit zugeschrieben wird, aufgrund ihrer verborgenen (»magischen«) Kenntnisse und/oder ihrer Verbindung mit übernatürlichen Mächten Schaden an Mensch, Tier und menschlicher Gemeinschaft zu verursachen. H. als Personifikation des Bösen sind im christl. Europa ebenso bekannt wie im vorkolonialen und modernen Afrika und Amerika oder auch im klassischen (China) und gegenwärtigen Asien. Dab…

1. Definition und ÜberblickNach der Definition in Zedlers Universal-Lexicon ist F. »eine Rede, wodurch wir jemanden was böses anwünschen [sic]« [1. 1337]. Tatsächlich sind Segnen (lat. benedicere) und F. (lat. maledicere) verwandt; beide beruhen auf dem Glauben an die Macht des Wortes, insbes. wenn es von befähigten Personen unter Beachtung bestimmter Formeln und Riten eingesetzt wird. In diese Kategorie gehören sog. Fluchpsalmen und Fluchmessen. F. steht in kontrapunktischer Position zum Gebet, welches an Gott gerichtet ein…

1. Concept; key characteristics of the early modern witchThe etymological origins of the English “witch” (OE  wicce) and the German  Hexe  (witch, related to English “hag”) are obscure. Both terms were used to denote people (usually women, but see Witch, male) said by their peers in society to be able to cause damage to people, animals, and human society by means of their hidden (“magical”) knowledge and/or their connections with supernatural forces. Witches as personifications of evil were familiar in Chris…

1. Begriff Der Begriff K. leitet sich vom ersten Tag des Monats im alten Rom (lat. Kalendae) ab; über lat. calendarium (»Schuldbuch«) übertrug er sich später auf die Zeitrechnung insgesamt. Basis aller bekannten K. sind der Wechsel von Tag und Nacht, die sich wiederholenden Mondphasen (»Mond« = Monat) und der Lauf der Jahreszeiten im Sonnenjahr.Wolfgang Behringer2. Zeitrechnung: Frühe AusprägungenAstronomische Erscheinungen (Astronomie) bestimmen kulturübergreifend die Zeiteinheiten Jahr, Monat und Tag. Durch astronomische Beobachtung und Berechnungen, e…

1. Term The word calendar derives from the name of the first day of the month in Ancient Rome (Latin Kalendae). From Latin kalendarium (‘debt-book’), it later came to refer to the whole system of reckoning time (Time, reckoning of). All known calendars are based on the alternation of day and night, the recurrent phases of the Moon (OE mona = “Moon”; monađ = “month”), and the course of the seasons through the solar year.Wolfgang Behringer 2. Chronology: early manifestations In all cultures, astronomical phenomena (Astronomy) determine the chronological units of year, month,…

1. Allgemein 1.1. AnlässeF. (von lat. festus, »feierlich«, »festlich«) unterbrechen die Routine des Alltags, zu dem sie als zeitlich und räumlich begrenzte »Anti-Struktur« in Gegensatz stehen und dessen strukturierender Bestandteil sie sind [21]. In der Nz. markierten F. die Phasen natürlicher, sozialer oder individueller Zeitfolgen, die entweder zyklischer oder serieller Natur sein konnten: Ersteres z. B. beim landwirtschaftlichen Jahreszyklus, dem ökonomischen Zyklus, dem Kirchenjahr mit seinen wiederkehrenden Heiligentagen und Jahrmärkten, Letzteres z. B. bei…

1. General 1.1. OccasionsFestivals (from Latin  festus, “joyful, festive”) interrupt the routine of the everyday world, to which they contrast as a temporally and spatially limited “anti-structure” of which they are the structuring element [21]. In the early modern period, festivals marked the phases of natural, social, or individual chronologies, which could be either cyclic or linear. Cyclic chronologies included the annual agricultural cycle, the economic cycle, the church year with its recurring saint's days (Saint), and …