Search

According to the traditional understanding, collegialism designates a theory advanced in justification of (Protestant) territorial church government (the last of such older theories after the territorial and episcopal systems). Unlike earlier theories, however, it includes both a sociological and a theological theory of the church and of church law. The basis is the view, derived from natural law and the Enlightenment, of the social nature of the church (as a collegium, as for S. Pufendorf and J. H. Boehmer). In the middle of the 18th century early collegialists (e.g., C. M. Pfaff…

1. Begriff und HerkunftDer Begriff des G. R. (lat. ius divinum) beruht auf der in vielen Kulturen anzutreffenden Vorstellung, das Recht oder ein Teil des Rechts sei göttlichen Ursprungs. Es liegt auf der Hand, dass im Europa der Nz. das Christentum die Entwicklung der Lehre vom G. R. prägte.Die klassische röm. Jurisprudenz hatte Religion und Recht in zwei getrennte Regelungsbereiche aufgespalten. Folgenreich für die abendländische Geschichte wurde jedoch, dass die Juristen der röm. Kaiserzeit die Herrschaft des princeps wiederum auf G. R. gründeten. Damit wurde das ius divinum …

1. Definition and originsThe concept of ius divinum (“divine law”) is based on the idea found in many cultures that law or part of law has divine origins. Obviously, in early modern Europe, Christianity significantly influenced the theory of ius divinum.Classical Roman jurisprudence split religion and law into two separate areas. Imperial Roman jurists’ attribution of the Imperial of the power of the princeps to ius divinum would prove particularly consequential for the West. In this way, ius divinum became the basis for the legitimacy of all law (Legitimacy). The scho…

[English Version] Sehling, Emil (9.7.1860 Essen – 30.11.1928 Erlangen), ev. Jurist. Nach a.o. Professuren in Leipzig und Kiel seit 1888 o. Prof. in Erlangen. Neben zahlreichen Werken zu anderen Rechtsgebieten widmete er sich bes. dem Ehe- und Kirchenrecht, das er unter Ausschluß »aller rel. und theol. Erörterungen« behandelte. Durch sein monumentales Hauptwerk, die Edition der ev. Kirchenordnungen der Reformationszeit (5 Bde., 1902–1913; nach 1951 fortgeführt vom Kirchenrechtlichen Institut der EKD…

[English Version] Reinking(k), Dietrich (Theodor; seit 1650: v.; 10.3.1590 Windau, Kurland – 15.12.1664 Glückstadt), bedeutender luth. Staatsrechtslehrer und Politiker; zunächst Prof. in Gießen, seit 1618 hohe Staatsämter in hessen-darmstädtischen, mecklenburgischen, erzbfl. bremischen (hier Vertreter des Erzstifts bei den Osnabrückischen Friedensverhandlungen) und dänischen Diensten. In seinem wiss. Hauptwerk »Tractatus de Regimine seculari et ecclesiastico« (1619, 71717) beschreibt R. die Reichsverfassung als Monarchie des Kaisers, der nur in d…

[English Version] bez. die gleichrangige Rechtsstellung von Religionsgemeinschaften im Staat; sie setzt deshalb die Auflösung der konfessionellen Homogenität im Staatsverband voraus. – Zuvor schon faktisch geübt, gewann die P. in Deutschland durch die (freilich noch beschränkte) Gleichstellung der kath. und ev. Religionspartei erste rechtliche Gestalt v.a. im Augsburger Religionsfrieden. Eine ausdrückliche verfassungsrechtliche Verankerung erfuhr sie im Westfälischen Frieden als »aequalitas exacta…

[English Version] . I.  Geschichte. Der Begriff entstammt der rationalen Naturrechtslehre (Naturrecht: IV.) der Aufklärung und hier v.a. der staatskirchenrechtlichen Theorie des Kollegialismus. »R.« ist damit eine Kurzformel für die Außensicht zunächst auf die Kirchen, später auf alle rel. Bekennergemeinschaften aus dem Blickwinkel des rel. neutralen Staates, der die rel. Wahrheitsfrage nicht mehr stellt und deshalb zur prinzipiellen Gleichbehandlung verpflichtet ist. In dieser Form fand der Begriff…

[English Version] I. Geschichte S. bez. eine Zuordnung von Kirche und Staat dergestalt, daß die Kirche dem Staat eingegliedert ist und als Staatsanstalt erscheint. Daraus folgen nicht nur staatl. Eingriffsrechte in das Innere der Kirchenverfassung (Stellenbesetzung, Entscheidung von Lehrkonflikten, Verfügung über Kirchengut u.a.), sondern auch die Indienstnahme der Kirche für staatl. Zwecke. 1. Die Gesch. der S. beginnt unter Theodosius I. durch die Erhebung der christl. zur alleinberechtigten Reichskirche. In Ostrom befestigte sich ein sakraler…

[English Version] Rieker, Karl (27.3.1857 Urach – 28.11.1927 Erlangen), ev. Jurist. Nach Theologie- und Philosophiestudium zunächst im Kirchendienst, danach rechtswiss. Studium in Leipzig, dort 1891 Promotion und Habil., 1893 a.o. Prof., seit 1903 o. Prof. für Öfftl. Recht und Rechtsgesch. in Erlangen. In seinem Hauptwerk über die rechtliche Stellung der ev. Kirche in Deutschland geht es R. im wesentlichen um den Nachweis, daß Synodal- und Presbyterialsprinzip keine Grundlage in der luth. Theol. ha…

[English Version] . I. Im Völkerrecht umschreibt N. die Rechtsstellung eines nicht am Krieg anderer Staaten teilnehmenden Staates. Daraus ergeben sich für diesen eine Reihe von Rechten (Integrität des Staatsgebiets, bewaffnete Zurückweisung von N.-Verletzungen u.a.) und Pflichten (insbes. weder militärische noch finanzielle oder sonstige Unterstützung einer Kriegspartei, hinreichendes militärisches Potential zur Abwehr von Angriffen schon in Friedenszeiten, Duldung der Durchsuchung von Schiffen durc…

[English Version] bez. eine für die Staatlichkeit als unverzichtbar angesehene (und notfalls zwangsweise durchzusetzende) rel. Einheit des Untertanenverbands (»un roi, une loi, une foi«). Sie bildet das selbstverständliche Fundament nahezu aller älteren Staatsbildungen. In dem Maße, wie Rel. als Teil der öfftl. Ordnung gilt, wird ein rel. Pluralismus als Bedrohung der Staatseinheit empfunden, da er den Keim des Bürgerkriegs, zumindest aber eingeschränkter staatsbürgerlicher Loyalität in sich trägt…

[English Version] Obermayer, Klaus (5.5.1916 Wiesbaden – 14.8.1988 Erlangen), ev. Jurist; zunächst aktiver Offizier und Kriegsteilnehmer der ersten Stunde; nach 1945 in München Studium und Referendariat, danach Praxisjahre in der staatl. und kirchl. Verwaltung; 1958 Habil.; seit 1960 bis zur Emeritierung 1984 o.Prof. für Öfftl. Recht und Kirchenrecht in Erlangen. – O. gehörte zu den Pionieren einer rechtsstaatl., grundrechtskonformen Durchdringung des Verwaltungsrechts, verbunden mit umfassender ge…

[English Version] (appel comme d'abus) bez. die Anrufung staatl. Instanzen gegen einen Mißbrauch der geistl. Amtsgewalt durch Überschreitung der staatsgesetzlich gezogenen Grenzen – und damit (neben dem Plazet) ein bes. wirksames Instrument der staatl. Kirchenhoheit. Seine bes. Ausprägung erhielt er in Frankreich 1539. Hier diente der R. v.a. der Abwehr von Eingriffen in die gallikanischen Freiheiten (Gallikanismus); nach franz. Vorbild wurde er auch in Spanien und den Niederlanden geübt. Als Rech…

[English Version] bez. eine staatskirchenrechtliche Theorie, nach der die umfassende Herrschaftsgewalt des Fürsten auch die Herrschaft über Kirche und öfftl. Religionsausübung im Lande einschließt und sich demgemäß alle kirchl. Leitungsbefugnisse vom Landesherrn herleiten. Zeitlich löst das Territorialsystem in unscharfem Übergang das Episkopalsystem ab (in dessen Begründung zunehmend territorialistische Argumente einfließen) und konkurriert im 18. und beginnenden 19.Jh. mit dem Kollegialsystem (K…

[English Version] Puchta, Georg Friedrich (31.8.1798 Cadolzburg – 8.1.1846 Berlin), ev. Jurist. Nach juristischem Studium in Erlangen dort 1820 Promotion, Habil. für Röm. Recht und 1823 Extraordinariat; 1823 o. Prof. in München, 1835 in Marburg und 1837 in Leipzig. 1842 erhielt er nach dessen Ernennung zum Minister den Lehrstuhl F.C. v. Savignys, den damals prominentesten in Deutschland; 1844 außerdem Geheimer Rat am Preußischen Obertribunal, 1845 Mitglied des Staatsrats und der Gesetzeskommission. …

[English Version] Weber, Werner (31.8.1904 Wülfrath – 29.11.1976 Göttingen), Staats- und Verwaltungsrechtslehrer. Nach Studium in Marburg, Berlin, Bonn (hier auch noch von C. Schmitt betreute Promotion) 1930 Eintritt in das Preußische Kultusministerium, zunächst in die Geistl. Abt., später Versetzung in die Abt. für Volksbildung; daneben 1931 Lehrbeauftragter, 1935 o. Prof. Handelshochschule Berlin, 1942 Leipzig, 1949 Göttingen, 1956–1958 Rektor, 1972 emeritiert. – W. sah mit Sorge den zunehmenden …

[English Version] bez. Modalitäten der ma. und neuzeitlichen kath. Inanspruchnahme einer kirchl. (insbes. päpstl.) Gewalt in zeitlichen (weltl.) Dingen (in temporalibus). Gestützt auf ältere Lehrtraditionen behauptete v.a. das ma. Papsttum (am schärfsten formuliert in der Bulle »Unam sanctam« Bonifatius' VIII. 1302, Zwei-Schwerter-Lehre) die päpstl. Suprematie über alle weltl. Gewalt und damit nicht nur die oberste Rechtssetzungsmacht in spiritualibus et temporalibus, sondern auch ein direktes Ein…

[English Version] (Placetum regium, Exequatur regium) bez. das Zustimmungserfordernis des Landesfürsten zu kirchl., insbes. päpstl. Rechtssetzungsakten und Einzelanordnungen. Es war nicht nur Wirksamkeitsvoraussetzung des Rechtsakts im jeweiligen Land, sondern schloß auch bereits die Genehmigung zu dessen Publikation ein. Zuerst geübt in England und im franz. Gallikanismus, wurde das P. insbes. seit dem 17.Jh. in zahlreichen Staaten West- und Südeuropas eingeführt. Im dt. Reich nahmen es die Lande…

[English Version] Schoen, Paul (16.5.1867 Königsberg – 21.9.1941 Göttingen), ev. Jurist. 1896 a.o., 1900 o. Prof. in Jena, im gleichen Jahr o. Prof. in Göttingen. Neben zahlreichen Arbeiten zum öfftl. Recht unternahm es Sch. in seinem zweibändigen Hauptwerk »Das ev. Kirchenrecht in Preußen« (1903–1910; Neudr. 1967), dieses Rechtsgebiet unter Verzicht auf dessen theol. und kirchenpolit. Dimension, dafür in Parallelität zum Staats- und Verwaltungsrecht zu entwickeln. Trotz Ausblendung der zentralen P…

[English Version] Wahrmund, Ludwig (21.8.1860 Wien – 10.9.1932 Prag), kath. Kirchenrechtslehrer; nach juristischer Habil. in Wien (1889) ao. (1891) und o. Prof. (1894) in Czernowitz, 1896 o. Prof. an der Juristischen Fakultät Innsbruck. – W., der v.a. mit rechtsgesch. Arbeiten hervorgetreten war, erlangte eigentliche Berühmtheit durch den »Fall W.«: In aggressiver Form behauptete er die Unvereinbarkeit der »kath. Weltanschauung« mit moderner wiss. Erkenntnis und trat für eine Verbannung der Theol. …

[English Version] 1.  Joachim , (Mai 1544 Pyritz, Pommern – 14.1.1623 Greifswald). Zunächst (1572) Prof. der Mathematik in Greifswald, seit 1578 ebd. Prof. der Rechte, herzoglicher Rat und Konsistorialpräsident. – Als – neben seinem jüngeren Bruder (2.) – führender Vertreter des Episkopalsystems (Episkopalismus: I.) legitimiert S. das sich herausbildende ev. landesherrliche Kirchenregiment reichsrechtlich aus dem Übergang der (kath.) bfl. Jurisdiktionsrechte auf die ev. Reichsstände und findet dafür…

[English Version] Richter, Aemilius Ludwig (15.2.1808 Stolpen – 8.5.1864 Berlin), ev. Kirchenrechtslehrer. 1835 a.o. Prof. in Leipzig, o. Prof. in Marburg (1838), seit 1846 in Berlin; 1850–1859 zugleich Mitglied des Ev. Oberkirchenrats, danach Geheimer Oberregierungsrat im Preußischen Kultusministerium. – R. zählte neben K.F. Eichhorn zu den Begründern des kirchenrechtlichen Zweigs der Hist. Rechtsschule. Erst 31jährig, legte er eine krit. Neuedition des Corpus Iuris Canonici vor. Neben zahlreichen …

[English Version] bez. die von der allg. Geschäftsfähigkeit (Mündigkeit) abweichende Fähigkeit Jugendlicher, eigenständige rel. Entscheidungen mit rechtlicher Relevanz zu treffen. In Deutschland ist sie – gemäß dem fortgeltenden Reichsgesetz über die religiöse Kindererziehung vom 15.7.1921 (RKEG) – gestuft: vom 12. Lebensjahr an kann das Kind nicht mehr gegen seinen Willen in einem anderen Bekenntnis als bisher erzogen werden, vom 14. Lebensjahr an hat es selbst über seine Bekenntniszugehörigkeit …

[English Version] Scheurl, Christoph Gottlieb Adolf (seit 1884: Frhr. v.; 7.1.1811 Nürnberg – 24.1.1893 ebd.), ev. Rechtshistoriker und Kirchenrechtler. 1840 a.o., seit 1845 o. Prof. in Erlangen. Neben dem Röm. und dem Eherecht galt sein Hauptinteresse dem Kirchenrecht (: IV.,2., b), dessen Institutionen er im Geist der Hist. Rechtsschule gesch. begründete. In den konfessionellen Auseinandersetzungen vertrat er mit Nachdruck die Sache des Luthertums, setzte sich aber zugleich für eine größere Selbständigkeit der Kirche vom Staat ein. Christoph Link Bibliography C.A. …

[English Version] Schulte, Johann Friedrich (seit 1869 Ritter v.; 23.4.1827 Winterberg, Westfalen – 19.12.1914 Obermais bei Meran), kath. Kirchenrechtslehrer und Rechtshistoriker; 1854 a.o., 1855 o. Prof. in Prag, 1873–1906 in Bonn. Obwohl urspr. der kath. Kirche eng verbunden, wurde er 1870 zu einem der profiliertesten Kritiker des Unfehlbarkeitsdogmas und – neben I. v. Döllinger – zum maßgeblichen Organisator der altkath. Bewegung (Alt-Katholiken). Polit. verfocht er als nationalliberaler Reichstagsab…

[English Version] . Der Begriff bez. im 19.Jh. das landesherrliche Kirchenregiment über die ev. Kirche, seine Gesch. reicht aber bis ins 16.Jh. zurück. Nach dem Zerfall der bfl. Jurisdiktion nahmen die ev. Reichsstände zwar mit Billigung der Reformatoren die Neuordnung des Kirchenwesens in Angriff; dies sollte indes nur »aus christl. Liebe« (Luther), mit der Autorität des Landesherrn als »praecipuum membrum ecclesiae« (Melanchthon) erfolgen, nicht aber kraft weltl. Machtstellung. Nicht Luther ist …

[English Version] Stahl, Friedrich Julius (16.1.1802 München – 10.8.1861 Brückenau), ev. Jurist und Politiker. S. (urspr. Jolson) entstammte einer jüd. Kaufmannsfamilie. 1819 trat er zum Luthertum über und nahm in der Taufe den Namen S. an. 1832 a.o. Prof. in Erlangen, im gleichen Jahr o.Prof. in Würzburg, 1834 o.Prof. in Erlangen. Als Vertreter der Universität im bayerischen Landtag wurde er wegen eines Konflikts mit der Regierung gemaßregelt und nahm deshalb 1840 einen Ruf nach Berlin an. Hier geh…

[English Version] Reservatrechte, im Alten dt. Reich Inbegriff derjenigen (hist. wechselnden) Rechte, die dem Kaiser ohne Zustimmungserfordernisse von Kurfürsten und Reichstag zukamen. In Anlehnung daran bez. R. im 19.Jh. solche – im Summepiskopat des Landesherrn wurzelnde – kirchenleitende Befugnisse, die sich dieser zur persönlichen Ausübung (d.h. nicht durch in seinem Namen handelnde Kirchenbehörden) vorbehalten hatte. Dazu zählten v.a.: Sanktionierung der von den Synoden beschlossenen Kircheng…

[English Version] (ALR) bez. das am 1.6.1794 in Kraft getretene Gesetzbuch für die preußische Gesamtmonarchie. Seine Abfassung beruht auf einem Befehl Friedrichs II., des Großen, an den neuen Kanzler Casimir Graf v. Carmer (1780); unter seinen Mitarbeitern haben das ALR insbes. Carl Gottlieb Svarez und Ernst Ferdinand Klein inhaltlich geprägt. Nach dem Tode Friedrichs 1791 vollendet, sollte es 1792 als »Allgemeines Gesetzbuch für die Preußischen Staaten« (AGB) in Kraft treten. Polit. Widerstände d…

[German Version] (May 5, 1916, Wiesbaden – Aug 14, 1988, Erlangen), Protestant jurist. He served as an officer from the first days of the war. After 1945 he studied and completed his professional qualification, and then practiced as a lawyer for several years in state and church administration. In 1958 he gained his Habilitation. From 1960 until his retirement in 1984 he was full professor of public law and church law in Erlangen. Obermayer was one of the pioneers of administrative law founded on the rule of law, informed by basic rights and in co…

[German Version] (July 9,1860, Essen – Nov 30, 1928, Erlangen), Protestant legal scholar. After associate professorships in Leipzig and Kiel, he was appointed to a full professorship in Erlangen in 1888. After numerous works on other legal topics, he devoted himself primarily to marriage law and church law, which he discussed without “any religious or theological consideration.” His monumental magnum opus, an edition of the Protestant church orders of the Reformation period (5 vols., 1902–1913; continued after 1951 by the Kirchenrechtliches Institut of t…

[German Version] The Prussian Civil Code ( Preußisches Allgemeines Landrecht) went into effect on Jun 1, 1794, as a law code for the unified Prussian monarchy. It was drafted at the behest of Frederick the Great by the new chancellor, Casimir v. Carmer (1780); among those contributing to its content, Carl Gottlieb Svarez and Ernst Ferdinand Klein stand out. Completed in 1791, after Frederick’s death, it was to have taken effect in 1792 as the Allgemeines Gesetzbuch für die Preußischen Staaten [Civil code for the Prussian states]. Not least in reaction to the French Revoluti…

[German Version] The expressions ius in sacra and ius circa sacra came into use in the 17th century but were not clearly distinguished until the 19th century. They denote the legal authority of the territorial ruler by virtue of his supervisory authority over all corporations and religious bodies (Secular supremacy: ius in sacra), grounded in his secular authority, and his authority as summepiscopus (Summepiscopate of the princes) of the Protestant church ( ius in sacris). Episcopalist theology (Episcopalism: I) developed a graduated theory of secular authority, in co…

[German Version] (Jan 27, 1701, Trier – Sep 2, 1790, Montquintin Castle, Luxemburg), Catholic historian and canonist. Hontheim was from a patrician family in Trier. He studied law, theology and classical philology in Trier, Leuven and Leiden. He received the Dr.iur.utr. in 1724 and became a priest and canonist in 1728, first in Trier then in Coblenz in 1740. He was professor of Roman law in Trier (1733–1738), administrator of the diocesan court in Coblenz (1738) and auxiliary bishop and pro-chancellor of the University in Trier (1748). Despite ecclesial and political success in th…

[German Version] Territorialism is a theory of the legal relationship between the state and the church, according to which the all-embracing sovereignty of the prince includes sovereignty over the church and the public practice of religion in his territory; this means that all leadership authority in the church derives from the territorial lord. Chronologically the territorial system gradually gave way to episcopalism (which was influenced increasingly by territorialist arguments as it emerged); i…

[German Version] refers to the division of the Reichstag according to religious parties ( Corpus Catholicorum and Corpus Evangelicorum ) when one side declared the question at issue to be a matter of religion. Deliberations then began first within the confessional blocks – separated according to curias. If these separately reached decisions differed from one another, only the path of compromise, the amicabilis compositio remained. Matters of religion could not, therefore, be decided in a plenary session according to the majority principle. Exercised de facto as early as 1526, b…

[German Version] refers to the right under imperial law to emigrate for religious reasons. The Peace of Augsburg (1555) guaranteed the estates of the empire the ¶ ius reformandi , i.e. the authority to determine the confession of their territory (religious ban). Subjects of other confessions were granted as a legal benefit ( beneficium) a qualified right to emigrate (i.e. taking along family and belongings) to a territory of their confession – and, therewith, the first constitutionally guaranteed basic right. The Peace of Westphalia confirmed this…

[German Version] 1. History. The concept originated in the rational Enlightenment doctrine of natural law (IV), and especially in the state-church law theory of collegialism. “Religious societies” is thus a short formula for the outside view of the churches, and later of all religious confessional societies from the vantage point of the religiously neutral state, which no longer concerns itself with the issue of religious truth and is therefore committed in principle to equal treatment. It was in this form that the concept found its way via the Prussian Civil Code, the Paulskirchenverf…

[German Version] (Apr 23, 1893, Frankfurt am Main – Feb 22, 1976, Erlangen) was a Protestant historian of law, and lectured in state and canon law. After studies in Freiburg im Breisgau and Halle, and military service from 1914 to 1918, Liermann gained his Habilitation in Freiburg in 1926. Initially appointed associate professor in 1929, he held a chair in Erlangen from 1931 to 1961. In addition to numerous works on the history of law, Liermann exerted a formative influence particularly through his textbook on canon law of 1933. He summar…

[German Version] (religious name Philipp; Nov 7, 1744, Budenheim, near Mainz – Aug 20, 1808, Düsseldorf), theologian and canonist. Hedderich became a Minorite in 1759. From 1774 to 1794 he was professor of canon law in Bonn; from 1803 on he taught at the Rechtsakademie in Düsseldorf. While he was studying law at Trier, he was decisively influenced by the personality and work of J.N. v. Hontheim. As a canonist, he was one of the most influential theoreticians of Febronianism. Hedderich emphasized t…

[German Version] ( appel comme d’abus) is an appeal of civil authorities against an abuse of power by an ecclesiastical authority transgressing the boundaries drawn by civil law; it was thus (along with the placet) a particularly effective instrument of secular supremacy. It achieved its distinctive form in France in 1539, when it served primarily as a defense against encroachments on Gallican liberties (Gallicanism). The French model also inspired its use in Spain and the Netherlands. Initially legal title was vested in royal church advocacy (Church advocate). The recursus came in…

[German Version] (Aug 31, 1904, Wülfrath – Nov 29, 1976, Göttingen), teacher of constitutional and administrative law. After studying in Marburg, Berlin, and Bonn (doctorate under C. Schmitt), Weber entered the Prussian ministry of education and cultural affairs, initially in the religious division, later in the division for national culture. In addition he was appointed lecturer at the Berlin School of Commerce in 1931 and promoted ¶ to full professor in 1935. In 1942 he became a professor at Leipzig and in 1949 at Göttingen, where he served as rector from 195…

[German Version] ( ius exclusivae) denotes the right of a civil ruler or state in Catholic church law to exclude as undesirable a certain candidate from being elected or appointed to church office. Papal exclusion, which the sovereigns of major Catholic powers (German and – later – Austrian emperors, kings of France and Spain) claimed for themselves with no formal recognition by th…

[German Version] The term state religion denotes a religious element unifying the collectivity of subjects, considered indispensable for the existence of the state (“un roi, une loi, une foi”). It was taken for granted as the foundation of nearly every early form of the state. To the extent that religion is considered an element of public order, religious pluralism is perceived as a threat to the unity of the state, since it bears the seed of civil war, or at least qualified loyalty on the part of th…

[German Version] refers to modalities of the medieval and modern Catholic claim to ecclesial (and esp. papal) authority in temporal (worldly) matters ( in temporalibus). Invoking older doctrinal tra-¶ ditions, the medieval papacy in particular claimed papal supremacy over all secular powers (most strongly articulated in the Unam sanctam bull of Boniface VIII [1302], doctrine of the two swords), and thus not only the supreme legislative authority in spiritualibus et temporalibus but also a right to intervene directly in the legal order of states through the repeali…

[German Version] was a movement for the reform of ecclesiastical policy and regional church law in 18th-century Germany, in which episcopalian (Episcopalism: II) and national church ideas combined to form an explosive mixture. It owes its name to a book written by the suffragan bishop of Trier J.N.v. Hontheim (1701–1790), De statu Ecclesiae et legitima potestate Romani Pontificis…, which appeared in 1763 under the pseudonym Justinus Febronius. Following a selective reduction of its contents, the book became the agenda of Febronianism. Hontheim's objec…

[German Version] 1. Joachim (May, 1544, Pyritz, Pomerania [now Pyrzyce, Poland] – Jan 14, 1623, Greifswald). Initially (1572) professor of mathematics in Greifswald, in 1578 he was appointed professor of law, a member of the ducal council, and president of the consistory. With his younger brother Matthias (2. below), he was a leading advocate of the episcopal system (Episcopalism: I), appealing to imperial law to legitimate the evolving Pro­testant system of placing church governance in the hands of…

[German Version] (Bodinus; 1529 or 1530, Angers – 1596, Laon) was a Carmelite for a brief period; he studied law in Toulouse from 1550 and became an advocate at the Parliament of Paris in 1561. In 1571, he entered the service of the Duke of Alençon and made contact with the “Politiques,” a group of moderate Catholics and Protestants who regarded the state as h…

[German Version] The summepiscopate of the princes is a 19th-century term for the governance of the Protestant churches, but its roots go back to the 16th century. After the breakdown of episcopal jurisdiction, with the approval of the Reformers the Protestant estates of the Empire set about restructuring the governance of the church; only “out of Christian charity” (Luther), it was to be put in the hands of the sovereign as praecipuum membrum ecclesiae (Melanchthon), but not by virtue of his temporal authority. Therefore Luther was not the progenitor of the princes’…

[German Version] ( Jan 16, 1802, Munich – Aug 10, 1861, Brückenau), Protestant jurisprudent and politician. Stahl (orig. Jolson) was of Jewish parentage; in 1819 he converted to Lutheranism and took the name Stahl when he was baptized. In 1832 he was appointed associate professor at Erlangen and in the same year full professor at Würzburg; in 1834 he was ¶ appointed full professor at Erlangen. As representative of the university in the Bavarian Landtag, he was reprimanded on account of a conflict with the government; in 1840 he therefore accepted an appointment in Be…

[German Version] (Feb 25, 1916, Chemnitz – Mar 29, 1967, Munich) was a Protestant lawyer who studied from 1936 to 1939, received his doctorate in 1940, and, following almost a decade of military service and imprisonment in Russia, became a lawyer serving the church. He gained his Habilitation in 1956 (Munich), became professor of state and church law in Marburg in 1958/59, and professor of church and state law in Munich in 1959. Grundmann's life work was devoted especially to Protestant canon law …

[German Version] The “standard year” of the Peace of Westphalia established in 1624 as normative for religious observance. It drastically restricted the right of princes to determine the confessional allegiance ( Ius reformandi ) of their lands guaranteed in the Peace of Augsburg by ensuring that the religion practiced legally – publicly or privately – at any time during the year 1624 could continue in that form in the future ( Instrumentum pacis osnabrugense art. V, §§32ff.). Church property was to remain in the hands of whoever held it on the “standard day” ( dies normalis; art. V, §2),…

[German Version] (“it pleases”; also placetum regium, exequatur regium) is the formula expressing assent by the local prince to ecclesiastical legislation, especially papal legislation. It was both a requirement before the law could take effect in the ruler’s territory and authorization to promulgate it (Publication). First put into practice in England and in French Gallicanism, it was introduced after the 17th century in many countries of western and southern Europe. In the German Empire, initially onl…

[German Version] (Reinkingk, since 1650: v. Reinking; Mar 10, 1590, Windau, Courland [today Ventspils, Latvia] – Dec 15, 1664, Glückstadt), outstanding Lutheran politician and scholar of constitutional law. After occupying a chair at Giessen, from 1618 he held high offices of state in Hesse-Darmstadt, Mecklenburg, archepiscopal Bremen (representing the archdiocese at the 1648 peace negotiations in Osnabrück), and Denmark. His most important academic work, Tractatus de regimine seculari et ecclesiastico (1619, 71717), characterizes the Empire as a monarchy of the em…

[German Version] In the Holy Roman Empire, reserved rights were the epitome of the (historically varying) rights enjoyed by the emperor without any requirement of approval by electors and the Reichstag. Borrowing from this usage, in the 19th century Reservatsrechte were those rights of church governance, rooted in the summepiscopate of the territorial prince, that he had reserved to be exercised personally (i.e. not by church officials acting in his name). The most important were: approbation of ecclesiastical legislation passed by synods, in ¶ some cases including the right to…

[German Version] I. From the very beginning, the church has always existed on the basis of communication. All human lives spent within it are realized in the communicative justification of human community. In all periods, therefore, it has placed every available means of communication in the service of its mission. The modern transition to an information-based society, however, represents a particular challenge. In many episcopal and papal statements going back as far as…

[German Version] (Huig de Groot; Apr 10, 1583, Delft, The Netherlands – Aug 28, 1645, Rostock), an impor-¶ tant jurist and theologian. From a patrician Delft family, Grotius attended the University of Leiden already as an eleven-year-old. After studying classical philology, history, theology, and law, he received the Dr.iur. in Orléans on an ambassadorial journey in 1598 and became a lawyer in 1599. An expert's opinion in the conflict of the sea-trade interests of Holland and Portugal contained the pioneering chapter De mare libero (1604; ET: The Free Sea, 2004), in which Grotius j…

[German Version] I As one type of relationship between church and state, a state church is a church incorporated into the state in such a way that it appears to be a state institution. As a result, the state not only has the right to intervene in the internal governance of the church (staffing, deciding doctrinal conflicts, disposition of church property, etc.; Church polity) but also may use the church for state purposes. 1 The history of state churches began when Theodosius I made the Christian church the only recognized church of the Roman Empire ( Reichskirche). In East Rome, a sacral …

[German Version] At the request of the liberal Bavarian minister of culture Johannes v. Lutz (1826–1890), §130a, the Kanzelparagraph, was included in the German criminal code by a law of Dec 10, 1871, part of the legislation enacted during the Kulturkampf. It threatened the clergy, with other official religious leaders, with up to two years imprisonment if they discussed state matters in public or in their preaching and threatened the public order. A law of Feb 28, 1872, extended the statutory offense to include dissemination of similar ideas in writing. During the Kirchenkampf (Nation…

[German Version] (Apr 23, 1827, Winterberg, Westphalia – Dec 19, 1914, Obermais, near Meran), Catholic canonist and legal historian. He was appointed associate professor in Prague in 1854, full professor in 1855; from 1873 to 1906, he taught as a professor in Bonn. Although originally closely tied to the Catholic Church, in 1870 he became one of the most prominent critics of the dogma of papal infallibility and – with J. v. Döllinger – a leading organizer of the Old Catholic movement (Old Catholic…

[German Version] denotes the equal status in law of religious communities in the state; it therefore presupposes the dissolution of confessional homogeneity within the state. Parity had been practiced earlier, but in Germany it first gained legal form through the (still limited) equality granted to the Catholic and Protestant parties, particularly in the Peace of Augsburg. It gained an explicit basis in constitutional law in the Peace of Westphalia as aequalitas exacta mutuaque (“complete and mutual equality”). At the same time, the previously excluded Reformed beli…

[German Version] I. In international law, neutrality is the legal status of a state that is not participating in a war involving other states. This status carries various rights (e.g. territorial integrity, armed resistance to violations of neutrality) and duties (esp. no military, financial, or other support of any belligerent, sufficient military potential to defend against attacks in peacetime, willingness to allow ships on the high seas to be searched by belligerents, and equal treatment of the…

[German Version] The term Constantinian Era is a headword known more in the context of “the end of the Constantinian Era” (Constantine the Great) than as a period delimited by precise historical criteria and is supposed to characterize the symbiosis of church and secular authority that began with the “Constantinian change” (312) and lasted into the modern era, indeed into recent history. It is meant to refer to an alliance in which each side uses the services of the other to reach its ¶ goals: the church uses the state for recourse to secular force and privileges; the st…

[German Version] (May 27, 1818, Zellerfeld – Dec 25, 1893, Hanover), Protestant teacher of constitutional and church law. After studying law in Göttingen, Berlin and Jena, Mejer obtained his doctorate in 1841 in Göttingen; he became a lecturer there in 1842, and a full professor at Königsberg in 1847, Greifswald in 1850, Rostock in 1851, and finally Göttingen from 1874 to 1885, after which he was president of the Hanover Evangelical Lutheran regional consistory until his death. As a pupil of A.L. …

[German Version] (Dec 20, 1837, Konitz, Western Prussia – Sep 7, 1910, Leipzig), (Protestant) jurist who became associate professor at the University of Halle in 1865, followed by Freiburg in 1868; from 1869, he was full professor at Leipzig. Deeply committed to the Hegelian idea of the state (G.W.F. Hegel), Friedberg belonged to the most prominent “state canonists” who sided with the state in the Kulturkampf . Although Friedberg sought to legitimate his position from a scientific-historical standpoint, his evaluation of the medieval conflic…

[German Version] (Mar 27, 1857, Urach – Nov 28, 1927, Erlangen), Protestant jurist. After studying theology and philosophy, Rieker first worked for the church. He then studied law in Leipzig, where he gained a doctorate and Habilitation in 1891. In 1893 he was appointed assistant professor, and from 1903 full professor of public law and history of law, in Erlangen. In his main work on the legal position of the Protestant Church in Germany, Rieker essentially seeks to prove that the synodal and presbyterial principles have no basis…

[German Version] I. Protestantism – II. Catholicism I. Protestantism In the 16th and 17th century (before territorialism and collegialism), episcopalism and the theory of the episcopal system developed by its proponents represented the earliest justification of the ecclesiastical authority wielded by Protestant princes in their realms. 1. While the Reformers regarded these local rulers as mere fellow Christians, albeit as praecipuum membrum ecclesiae, and wished to invest them with this authority only as long as seemed necessa…

[German Version] (May 16, 1867, Königsberg [Kaliningrad] – Sep 21, 1941, Göttingen), Protestant jurisprudent. He was appointed associate professor at Jena in 1896 and a full professor in 1900; in the same year he was appointed to a full professorship in Göttingen. Besides numerous works on public law, he wrote a major two-volume Das evangelische Kirchenrecht in Preußen (1903–1910, repr. 1967), discussing church law in Prussia without reference to its theological dimension or ecclesiastical politics, developing instead its parallelism with state and co…

[German Version] (Feb 15, 1808, Stolpen – May 8, 1864, Berlin), Protestant teacher of church law. In 1835 Richter became assistant professor in Leipzig, in 1838 full professor in Marburg, and from 1846 in Berlin; he was a member of the Protestant High Consistory between 1850 and 1859, and thereafter senior privy councilor in the Prussian ministry of culture. Together with K.F. Eichhorn, Richter is regarded as one of the founders of the church law branch of the history of law school. When he was only 31, he published a new critical edition of the Corpus iuris canonici. Alongside numerous oth…

[German Version] (Aug 31, 1798, Cadolzburg – Jan 8, 1846, Berlin), Protestant jurisprudent. Puchta studied law at Erlangen, receiving his degree in 1820; after gaining his habilitation in Roman law in 1823, he became an associate professor. In 1825 he was appointed full professor at Munich; in 1835 he moved to Marburg and in 1837 to Leipzig. In 1842, when F.C. v. Savigny was appointed high chancellor, Puchta succeeded to his chair at Berlin, then the most prominent in Germany. In 1842 he was also …

[German Version] Following episcopalism (I) and territorialism, collegialism was the latest of the three 17th- and 18th century theories on the origin and legitimation of vesting ecclesiastical authority of prince in the Protestant territories of the German Empire. The early collegialists (C.M. Pfaff, L. v. Mosheim) were concerned to limit the comprehensive claim to the prince's authority over religious matters as an aspect of public order asserted …

[German Version] (Jan 7, 1811, Nuremberg – Jan 24, 1893, Nuremberg), Lutheran legal historian and canonist. He was appointed associate professor at Erlangen in 1840 and full professor in 1845. Besides Roman law and matrimonial law, his major interest was canon law (IV, 2.b), whose institutions he explained in the spirit of the historical school of law. In confessional disputes, he emphatically took the side of Lutheranism, while at the same time supporting greater independence of the church from the state. Christoph Link Bibliography C.A. Stumpf, Kirchenrecht als Bekenntnisrecht.…

[German Version] (Aug 21, 1860, Vienna – Sep 10, 1932, Prague), Catholic professor of canon law. After his habilitation in law in Vienna (1889), he was appointed associate professor (1891) and full professor (1894) in Chernivtsi. In 1896 he was appointed to a professorship in the faculty of law at Innsbruck. Wahrmund, who had been noted for his studies on legal history, became really famous in the “Wahrmund affair.” He aggressively asserted the incompatibility of the “Catholic worldview” with mode…

[German Version] (May 8, 1832, Gedern – Dec 30, 1895, Darmstadt), Protestant theologian and authority on ecclesiastical law. After studying at Gießen and seminary training, he served initially as a private tutor and Gymnasium teacher. In 1863 he was appointed professor of catechetics and ecclesiastical law at the seminary in Friedberg; in 1882 he was appointed chief consistorial councilor in Darmstadt and superintendent for Rheinhessen. Köhler considered ecclesiastical law a necessary function of …

[English Version] I. Praktisch-theologisch Unter den Begriff Sch. fallen primär außerunterrichtliche Gebete zu Beginn und/oder Ende bzw. in Pausen der täglichen Schulzeit, daneben Gebete innerhalb des Religionsunterrichts. Sch. beider Typen sind gegenwärtig in den staatl. Schulen Deutschlands – anders als in der Zeit der konfessionellen Volksschulen (bis in die 60er Jahre) und anders als z.B. in England – ein marginales Phänomen. Vereinzelte Vorstöße, Sch. wieder einzuführen, wie z.B. 1987 in Bayer…

[English Version] I. Praktisch-theologisch Kirchl. Sch. versuchen, auf der Grundlage des christl. Menschenbildes Sch. so zu halten und zu gestalten, daß die Kraft des Evangeliums und die Bedeutung christl. Glaubens- und Lebensverständnisses für den päd. Umgang miteinander in gemeinsamen Lebensvollzügen erfahrbar werden können. Daher legitimieren sie sich sowohl theol. als auch päd. In ihnen stehen der Erziehungs- wie der Bildungsgedanke (Erziehung, Bildung) in einem wechselnd akzentuierten Zusammen…

[German Version] 1. Johannes (Nov 24, 1889, Kammerstein, Middle Franconia – Dec 15, 1965, Tübingen), Protestant teacher of constitutional and church law. After service in the church in Munich and later in Berlin, he became a private lecturer in 1923, and supernumerary professor in Berlin in 1926; in 1928, he was a full professor of public law and church law in Bonn, and in Munich from 1934 (with an interruption), until his retirement in 1957. After his initial labors in the history of church law as …

[German Version] I. Practical Theology – II. Law I. Practical Theology Basing themselves on the Christian conception of the human being, church schools attempt to dispense and configurate school education in such a way that the power of the gospel as well as the significance of Christian faith and its understanding of life can become experienceable in the pedagogical interaction of a shared conduct of life. Their legitimation is thus both theological and pedagogical. In their …

[German Version] I. Practical Theology The term school prayers refers primarily to prayers at the beginning or end of the school day or during breaks, along with prayers during religious education classes. In German public schools today – unlike the period of the denominational primary schools (into the 1960s) and also unlike in England, for example – such prayers are a marginal phenomenon. Scattered attempts to reintroduced school prayers like that of the Bavarian government in 1987 (Kaufmann, 32–38) e…

[English Version] I. Rechtlich 1. Anders als der alltagssprachliche Begriff R. ist der rechtliche umfassender. Nach den dt. Rundfunkstaatsverträgen bez. R. »die für die Allgemeinheit bestimmte Veranstaltung und Verbreitung von Darbietungen aller Art in Wort, Ton und Bild unter Benutzung elektrischer Schwingungen … « (§ 2 Abs.1 Rundfunkstaatsvertrag in der Fassung vom 7.6.2002). Darunter fallen nicht nur Hörfunk und Fernsehen (einschließlich Pay-TV), sondern auch Ton- und Bewegtbilddienste, Bildschi…

[English Version] 1.  Julius , Wilhelm Hermann (10.5.1857 Lengerich, Westfalen – 7.6.1930 Münster), zus. mit F. Spitta Führer der »älteren liturgischen Bewegung«. Theologiestudium in Bonn, Halle, Göttingen, 1881 als Nachfolger Spittas Hilfsprediger in Bonn, 1884 Licentiat, 1885 Pfarrer in Seelscheid, 1891 Prof. am Predigerseminar in Friedberg, 1893 Prof. für Praktische Theol. in Straßburg, 1914 Gründungsdekan der Ev.-theol. Fakultät in Münster, 1926 emeritiert. In hist. Arbeiten, zahllosen Vorträgen…

[English Version] I. Rechtlich Gegenüber dem unscharfen allg. Sprachgebrauch, der auch soziale Disparitäten einschließt, hat der Begriff P. juristisch einen genauer umrissenen, sich freilich hist. erst präzisierenden Bedeutungsgehalt. Er bez. ein von der zuständigen Autorität einem einzelnen oder einer Personenmehrheit durch Herrschaftsakt gewährtes, begünstigendes Sonderrecht. Ihren Ursprung hat die Rechtsfigur im röm. Recht; im MA wurde sie im wesentlichen von der Kirche fortgebildet, aber auch v…

[German Version] I. Law In contrast with its imprecise meaning in general usage, which also includes social disparities, in law the term “privilege” has a more clearly defined meaning, which became increasingly precise in the course of history. It denotes a special right granted to an individual or majority group by sovereign act of a responsible authority. As a legal term it has its origin in Roman law; in the Middle Ages it was developed essentially by the church, but used also by the emperor. In…

[German Version] I. Law 1. “Broadcasting” has a wider, meaning in law than in everyday language. State broadcasting agreements typically define broadcasting as “the organization and distribution of presentations of any kind in word, sound, and image by the use of electrical oscillations . . .” (Ger. State Broadcasting Agreement, §2, para. 1 [June 7, 2002 ed.]). This covers not only radio and television (including Pay-TV), but also sound and moving picture services, screen texts etc. (the inclusion of…

[German Version] I. German Law Along with artistic freedom, Basic Law art. 5 § 3 guarantees freedom of “scholarship, research, and teaching.” The association of freedom of teaching with scholarship and research shows that the guarantee of the Basic Law applies only to scholarly teaching, i.e. teaching that presents the findings of one’s own research (and examines critically the findings of others). Freedom of teaching thus relates (albeit not exclusively) to teaching in public and private universitie…

[German Version] 1. Julius (May 10, 1857, Lengerich, Westphalia – Jun 7, 1930, Münster), together with F. Spitta, a leader of the “Older Liturgical Movement.” After studying theology at Bonn, Halle, and Göttingen, he succeeded Spitta as assistant preacher in Bonn. He received his license to teach in 1884 and was appointed pastor in Seelscheid. In 1891 he was appointed professor in the seminary at Friedberg and in 1893 professor of practical theology at Straßburg (Strasbourg). In 1914 he became the f…

1. Early Church Tendencies 1.1. Two Fundamental Convictions Two fundamental convictions concerning the nature of the church, which are of great significance for the later development of church government, become evident in the NT writings. 1.1.1. The church has its origin in God’s actions in Jesus Christ. It is ekklēsia, or the people of the end time chosen and sanctified by God, to whom belongs the sphere of the sacred. Because he alone exercises his dominion over the church through the Holy Spirit, the church does not stand at the disposal of any human control or power (1 Cor. 3:16–17). Th…

[English Version] I. Geschichtlich Der Religionsunterricht (RU) an Schulen, und nur dieser ist entsprechend heutigem Sprachgebrauch im Blick (s. zu RU im weiteren Sinne Christenlehre, Konfirmandenunterricht), ist Resultat des allg. Differenzierungsprozesses, der zu Bemühungen um rel. Lernen auch außerhalb von Familie und Gottesdienst führte. Entsprechend der Entstehung von Schule im eur. Kulturkreis im kirchl. Bereich (Schule und Kirche, Schule, kirchliche, Klosterschulen) bestand lange Zeit der sc…

[English Version] I. Philosophisch Das N. gilt als Inbegriff derjenigen Rechtsnormen, die unabhängig von positiven Gesetzen und Konventionen für alle Menschen Verbindlichkeit beanspruchen. Der Ursprung des N. liegt in der Unterscheidung von Natur (phy´sis) und Gesetz (no´mos; Gesetz/Naturgesetz), die von der Sophistik des 5.Jh. v.Chr. veranschlagt wird in der Absicht, die tradierten positiven Gesetze in Frage zu stellen. Nach Antiphon sind die Gebote der Gesetze willkürlich, die der Natur dagegen, …

[English Version] I. Geschichtlich Die Lehre von Widerstand und W. ist seit der Antike untrennbar mit dem Verständnis von Hoheitsgewalt im weltl. wie kirchl. Bereich und deren Grenzen verbunden. 1. In den germ. Stammesreichen West-, Mittel- und Nordeuropas überkreuzen sich in der Legitimation eines W. drei Rechtsgedanken: einmal die Überzeugung, daß der Herrscher nicht über, sondern unter dem Recht (d.h. einer traditionsbegründeten Rechtsüberzeugung der adelsgeführten Dinggenossenschaft aller Wehrfähigen) steht, zum andere…

[German Version] I. History Ever since classical antiquity, the theory of resistance and the right of resistance have been linked inseparably to the understanding of sovereignty and its limits in both civil society and the church. 1. In the Germanic tribal kingdom of Western, Central, and Northern Europe, three overlapping legal concepts legitimated a right of resistance: (1) the conviction that the ruler is not above the law but subject to the law (grounded in the tradition of the administration of justice by the community of all …

[German Version] I. Catholic – II. Orthodox – III. Protestantism – IV. Judaism I. Catholic Excommunication must be defined as a privative term from communicatio and κοινωνíα/ koinōnía (cf. 1 Cor 10:16: sharing and participating in the body and blood of Jesus ¶ Christ; cf. 2 Cor 13:13: communion in the Holy Spirit). The word excommunication does not occur in the New Testament. The competence of the church to excommunicate is traced back to Matt 16:18f.…

[German Version] I. History Religious education (RE) in schools, in modern usage of the term (for RE in a broader sense see Christian doctrine classes, Confirmation classes), is the result of the general differentiation process that led to the promotion of religious learning beyond the contexts of family and worship. The schools of the European cultural sphere arose largely in the area of the church (School and church, Church schools, Monastery schools); for a long time, schooling was essentially based on religious texts. Since each country established its own particular forms…

[German Version] I. Philosophy Natural law is the essence of the legal norms that claim to be binding on all human beings, independent of positive laws and conventions. The term goes back to the distinction between nature( phýsis) and law ( nómos; Law/Natural law), put forward by the Sophists of the 5th century bce in order to challenge the traditional positive laws. According to Antiphon, the precepts of such laws are arbitrary, whereas the precepts of nature, which articulate individual benefit, are necessary (DK, frgm. B 44). Plato presents a v…

[English Version] I. ReligionswissenschaftlichDer urspr. in der Rechtssprache beheimatete Begriff S. wird v.a. im Rahmen der christl. Theol. reflektiert, doch scheint er durchaus geeignet, auch in der Religionswiss. Anwendung zu finden, wenn auch eine eingehende syst. Behandlung bislang noch nicht geleistet wurde. Im allgemeinsten Sinne ist dann von S. zu sprechen, wenn das eigentlich betroffene oder agierende Subjekt (sei es ein Gott, eine Einzelperson, z.B. der König, oder ein Kollektiv) durch j…

[English Version] I. Dogmatisch Unter R. werden nach herrschender Auslegung Glaubens-, Gewissens- und Bekenntnisfreiheit sowie die Freiheit der Religionsausübung (Art.4 Abs.1 und 2 GG) zu einem Grundrecht zusammengezogen. Der somit dogmatisch zu klärende Zusammenhang von rel. Gewißheit und Freiheit stellt sich nach reformatorischer Überzeugung folgendermaßen dar: Wird christl. Gewißheit als Gewißheit der Wahrheit des Evangeliums von Jesus Christus durch die freie, geistgewirkte Selbstvergegenwärtig…

[English Version] I. Soziologisch Die P. ist das älteste der neuzeitlichen Massenmedien, jener technischen Mittel zur Massenkommunikation, durch die Mitteilungen vervielfältigt und an eine große Zahl von Menschen (disperses Publikum) verbreitet werden können. Der Begriff geht zurück auf die von J. Gutenberg Mitte des 15.Jh. entwickelte Druckerpresse. Während darunter lange Zeit alle Arten von Druckwerken (auch Bücher) gefaßt wurden, hat sich der Begriff seit dem 19.Jh. auf die periodische P. vereng…

[German Version] I. Religious Studies The term substitution, originating in the language of law, is used primarily in Christian theology, but it is well suited for use in religious studies as well, even though so far there has been no detailed systematic treatment of it. In the most general sense, we speak of substitution when the true subject affected or acting (God, an individual like the king, or a collective) is represented by another ¶ entity (a person or group, an animal, or an object) as a substitute involved (actively or passively) in the action, acting for the…

[German Version] I. Dogmatics – II. Ethics – III. Philisophy – V. History – VI. Mission I. Dogmatics Freedom of religion, as generally understood, combines freedom of belief, of conscience, and creed, as well as freedom to practice one's religion (cf. German Basic Law, art. 4, §§1, 2), in one fundamental right. Dogmatics needs to clarify the relationship between religious certainty and freedom. A statement consonant with Reformation belief would run as follows: If Christian certainty, as certainty about the …