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Christian-Muslim relations in modern sub-Saharan Africa

(1,493 words)

Author(s): Hock, Klaus
The encounter between Islam and Christianity in modern sub-Saharan Africa has varied widely and substantially. The first contact between Christians and Muslims on African soil was peaceful, but, after followers of Muḥammad found refuge in Axum (in northern Ethiopia) about 615 CE, the Arab conquest of North Africa in the first/seventh century was accompanied by violent confrontations, although many Christians welcomed Muslim rule. The virtual disappearance of Christianity from the Sudan and the Maghrib co…
Date: 2021-07-19

Religious Studies

(4,620 words)

Author(s): Rudolph, Kurt | Seiwert, Hubert | Hock, Klaus
[German Version] I. History 1. The history of religious studies, or the science of religion (Ger. Religionswissenschaft) is a function of its definition or conception; it is thus somewhat ambiguous at ¶ times and is viewed in a variety of ways. Strictly speaking, religious studies did not acquire a more or less fixed framework of tasks and standard methods in Europe until the 20th century; this framework subsequently gained acceptance throughout the world, especially through the efforts of the International Association for the…

Foucauld, Charles Eugène de

(199 words)

Author(s): Hock, Klaus
[German Version] (vicomte [viscount]; Sep 15, 1858, Strasbourg – Dec 1, 1916, Tamanrasset, Algeria). After a life of dissipation as an officer in the French army, Foucauld rediscovered his Catholic faith through an encounter with Islamic piety and tried to live that faith first among Trappist monks, then as a page among the Clarists. He later ministered among the Tuaregs in the Algerian Sahara and founded a lay community to which L. Massignon also belonged. Foucauld was an extremely multifaceted f…

Oath

(4,263 words)

Author(s): Hock, Klaus | Steymans, Hans Ulrich | Börner-Klein, Dagmar | Fitzgerald, John T. | Krieg, Arno | Et al.
[German Version] I. Religious Studies – II. Old Testament – III. Judaism – IV. New Testament – V. Church History – VI. Ethics – VII. Law I. Religious Studies As a solemn affirmation of a statement, an oath takes its religious quality from the underlying belief in the power of words to effect a blessing or curse (Blessing and curse). Therefore the early phenomenology of religion classed oaths with invective, curses, etc. as words of consecration: those who swear oaths identify themselves with their words and are “consecrated…

Rites Controversy

(2,016 words)

Author(s): Collani, Claudia v. | Hock, Klaus
[German Version] I. History 1. The rites controversy is understood to refer to the controversy over whether Christians should be allowed to take part in particular state-ordered ceremonies in eastern Asia (China, India [see 2 below], and Japan; Asia : IV, 3) in the early modern period. This is linked to the question of theological terminology and church decrees. It was a question of how far the message of Christianity could be adapted to indigenous culture (Christianity, Expansion of : IV) and incult…

Damnation

(1,397 words)

Author(s): Hock, Klaus | Sarot, Marcel | Rosenau, Hartmut
[German Version] I. History of Religions – II. Philosophy of Religion – III. Dogmatics I. History of Religions As a theological category, damnation belongs primarily in the context of the history of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The etymology of the term itself connotes a local and a judicial dimension: the punishment of expulsion to a real or imaginary place as an exclusion from …

Expiation

(3,758 words)

Author(s): Hock, Klaus | Janowski, Bernd | Günter, Röhser | Stolina, Ralf | Stroh, Ralf
[German Version] I. Religious Studies – II. Bible – III. Dogmatics – IV. Ethics I. Religious Studies While (re)conciliation as an instrument for reaching an amicable settlement in a lawsuit has echoes of the legal ¶ dimension of expiation, the meaning of expiation (appeasement, pacification) refers first of all to the (re)establishment of an undisturbed state or of a “sound” relationship. In contrast to atonement (Re…

Reconciliation/Atonement

(6,443 words)

Author(s): Hock, Klaus | Seybold, Klaus | Oegema, Gerbern S. | Porter, Stanley E. | Webster, John | Et al.
[German Version] I. Religious Studies In comparison with expiation (I), reconciliation is defined more specifically; as a rule, its goal is to restore a personal relationship undermined by guilt or sin. In reconciliation we are dealing with a category rooted in ¶ the Judeo-Christian tradition that cannot be translated readily into other contexts. In comparison with Western Christianity, the understanding of reconciliation in Judaism displays several distinctive features. As in Christianity, the concept of reconciliation is complementar…

Sin, Guilt, and Forgiveness

(17,599 words)

Author(s): Krötke, Wolf | Hock, Klaus | Grund, Alexandra | Metzner, Rainer | Holze, Heinrich | Et al.
[German Version] I. Terminology Sin is a human breach of relationship with God. The term is emptied of content if it is used only for moral lapses. Only if a moral transgression in the mundane world is understood as a dimension of human alienation from God can it properly be called sin. The fundamental act of sin is unfaith (Unbelief ). In unfaith we close our eyes to the fact that we owe our existence to God and that he turns to us in love. We resist the idea that he determines our lives totally. T…

Modernization

(3,401 words)

Author(s): Pollack, Detlef | Ludwig, Frieder | Münch, Richard | Gräb, Wilhelm | Hock, Klaus
[German Version] I. Study of Religion – II. History – III. Sociology – IV. Practical Theology – V. Missiology I. Study of Religion The term modernization usually refers to mutually reinforcing structural changes in various social sectors: nation building and democratization in the political sector; industrialization and tertiarization (i.e. the development of services) in the economic sector; urbanization, educational expansion, and mobilization in the social sector; diversification and individualization in the c…

Natural Law

(5,543 words)

Author(s): Zenkert, Georg | Herms, Eilert | Hock, Klaus | Link, Christoph
[German Version] I. Philosophy Natural law is the essence of the legal norms that claim to be binding on all human beings, independent of positive laws and conventions. The term goes back to the distinction between nature( phýsis) and law ( nómos; Law/Natural law), put forward by the Sophists of the 5th century bce in order to challenge the traditional positive laws. According to Antiphon, the precepts of such laws are arbitrary, whereas the precepts of nature, which articulate individual benefit, are necessary (DK, frgm. B 44). Plato presents a v…

Africa: Time Chart

(2,342 words)

Author(s): Hock, Klaus
1. Pre- and Ancient History (c. 4 million-5000 BCE) c. 4 million BCE Australopithecus Afarensis Skeletal finds suggest that the ‘cradle of humanity’ lies in Africa. c. 70.000 Evidence of burials in Southern Africa from c. 26.000 Earliest African rock paintings, in Southern Africa (today's Namibia) The rock paintings document the experience of ritual specialists; the painted places are ‘power centers’ at which contact may be had with the supra-terrestrial world. from c. 20.000 Clay figures in Algeria, carved objects in Southern Africa 2. The Ancient Kingdoms (c. 6th millenium BCE-1st …

Charitable Organizations

(2,438 words)

Author(s): Hock, Klaus
Task of All Religions 1. Concern for those who have fallen into need, to support them, in deed, by counsel, and with economic assistance, is regarded as an important duty by all religions. Commitment to the cause of the weak is one of the fundamental commandments with which the religions foster the cohesiveness of society. Granted, there are differences in the determination of the goal: whether caritas (Lat., ‘[unselfish] love,’ ‘charity’) is exhausted merely in the bestowal of superfluities or alms, so that one acquires religious merit thereby, or whether ins…

Nigerian Muslim responses to the British colonisation of Northern Nigeria

(42 words)

Author(s): Hock, Klaus
Date of Birth: Place of Birth: Date of Death: Place of Death: Biography Primary Sources of Information Secondary Sources of Information Works on Christian-Muslim RelationsNigerian Muslim responses to the British colonisation of Northern NigeriaKlaus Hock

 Nigerian Muslim responses to the British colonisation of Northern Nigeria

(4,609 words)

Author(s): Hock, Klaus
- Nigerian Muslim responses to the British colonisation of Northern Nigeria Date: 1803-1918 Original Language: Arabic and Hausa DescriptionIn the 19th and early 20th centuries, the European presence in the areas of what is today Northern Nigeria and southern Niger (as well as parts of north-eastern Cameroon and western Chad) initially took the form of exploratory journeys by individuals, expeditions operated by trading companies and occasional missionary ventures, before colonial rule was finally imposed. The presenc…

Ritenstreit

(1,789 words)

Author(s): Collani, Claudia v. | Hock, Klaus
[English Version] I. Historisch 1. Unter R. versteht man die Auseinandersetzung, ob die Teilnahme an bestimmten staatl. angeordneten Zeremonien im Ostasien der frühen Neuzeit (China, Indien [s.u. 2.] und Japan; Asien: IV.,3.) für Christen erlaubt sein sollte, verbunden mit der Frage der theol. Terminologie und der Kirchengebote. Es ging um den Grad der Anpassung und Inkulturation der Botschaft des Christentums an die einheimische Kultur (Christentum, Ausbreitungsgeschichte: IV.), ohne daß es zu Syn…

Naturrecht

(4,848 words)

Author(s): Zenkert, Georg | Herms, Eilert | Hock, Klaus | Link, Christoph
[English Version] I. Philosophisch Das N. gilt als Inbegriff derjenigen Rechtsnormen, die unabhängig von positiven Gesetzen und Konventionen für alle Menschen Verbindlichkeit beanspruchen. Der Ursprung des N. liegt in der Unterscheidung von Natur (phy´sis) und Gesetz (no´mos; Gesetz/Naturgesetz), die von der Sophistik des 5.Jh. v.Chr. veranschlagt wird in der Absicht, die tradierten positiven Gesetze in Frage zu stellen. Nach Antiphon sind die Gebote der Gesetze willkürlich, die der Natur dagegen, …

Versöhnung

(5,862 words)

Author(s): Hock, Klaus | Seybold, Klaus | Oegema, Gerbern S. | Porter, Stanley E. | Webster, John | Et al.
[English Version] I. ReligionsgeschichtlichIm Vergleich zur Sühne (: I.) ist V. spezifischer bestimmt und zielt in der Regel auf die Wiederherstellung einer durch Schuld oder Sünde zerrütteten personalen Beziehung. Bei V. handelt es sich um eine Kategorie aus der jüd.-christl. Tradition, die nicht ohne weiteres auf andere Kontexte übertragbar ist. Im Vergleich zu christl.-abendländischen Ausprägungen zeigt das Verständnis von V. bereits im Judentum erhebliche Besonderheiten. Zwar erscheint auch hi…

Verdammnis

(1,259 words)

Author(s): Hock, Klaus | Sarot, Marcel | Rosenau, Hartmut
[English Version] I. Religionsgeschichtlich V. gehört als theol. Kategorie vornehmlich in den Kontext der jüd.-christl.-isl. Religionsgesch. Der Begriff selbst konnotiert etym. eine örtliche und eine juristische Dimension: die Strafe der Verbannung an einen realen oder imaginären Ort als zeitlich begrenzten oder unbegrenzten Ausschluß vom Heil. Dabei ergeben sich in allen drei Traditionen mehrere Spannungsfelder: hinsichtlich der Sache selbst zw. V. als »automatischer« Folge menschlichen Fehlverhal…

Religionswissenschaft

(3,943 words)

Author(s): Rudolph, Kurt | Seiwert, Hubert | Hock, Klaus
[English Version] I. Geschichte 1. Die Geschichte der R. wird von ihrer Definition bzw. Auffassung bestimmt; sie ist daher nicht immer eindeutig und wird unterschiedlich betrachtet. Streng genommen hat die R. erst im 20.Jh. in Europa einen mehr oder weniger festen Rahmen ihrer Aufgaben und maßgebenden Methoden erhalten, der sich weltweit durchgesetzt hat, v.a. dank der International Association for the History of Religions (IAHR). Da sich die R. außerdem aus verschiedenen Teilbereichen (Gesch., Kom…

Sünde/Schuld und Vergebung

(16,230 words)

Author(s): Krötke, Wolf | Hock, Klaus | Grund, Alexandra | Metzner, Rainer | Holze, Heinrich | Et al.
[English Version] I. BegrifflichkeitSünde (S.) ist der Bruch des Gottesverhältnisses durch den Menschen. Dieser Begriff wird entleert, wenn er nur auf moralische Verfehlungen angewandt wird. Nur sofern ein innerweltl. moralisches Fehlverhalten als Dimension der Abwendung des Menschen von Gott begriffen wird, kann es mit Recht S. genannt werden. Der Grundakt der S. ist der Unglaube. Im Unglauben verschließen sich Menschen dagegen, daß sie Gott ihr Dasein verdanken und er sich ihnen zuwendet. Sie we…

Sühne

(3,009 words)

Author(s): Hock, Klaus | Janowski, Bernd | Röhser, Günter | Stolina, Ralf | Stroh, Ralf
[English Version] I. ReligionswissenschaftlichWährend im »Sühneversuch« als Instrument zur gütlichen Beilegung eines Rechtsstreits die juristische Dimension von S. nachklingt, verweist die Bedeutung des Sühnebegriffs (Beschwichtigung, Besänftigung) zunächst ganz allg. auf die (Wieder-)Herstellung eines ungestörten Zustands bzw. einer »heilen« Beziehung. Im Unterschied zu Versöhnung (engl. atonement; zumeist auf jüd.-christl. Sühnevorstellungen bezogen) ist S. (engl. expiation) weniger spezifisch b…
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