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Bernstein

(594 words)

Author(s): Hünemörder, Christian (Hamburg) | Wartke, Ralf-B. (Berlin) | Pingel, Volker (Bochum)
[English version] I. Allgemein Das fossile Harz von Coniferen, das dt. nach seiner Brennbarkeit oder als Succinit bezeichnet wird. Die magnetische Anziehungskraft des B. ist schon Thales bekannt (A 1,24 und A 3 DK); aus dem griech. Namen ἤλεκτρον ist der mod. Begriff “Elektrizität” abgeleitet. B. wird bei Aristoteles (z.B. met. 4,10,388b19ff.) und Theophrast (h. plant. 9,18,2; lapid. 3,16; 5,28 und 29 [2]) erwähnt, sowie als sucinum bei Tacitus (Germ. 45). Plinius (ital. thium, german. glaesum: nat. 37,31-46) charakterisiert B. als defluens medulla pinei generis arboribus (‘von …

Glass

(1,832 words)

Author(s): Platz-Horster, Gertrud (Berlin) | Wartke, Ralf-B. (Berlin) | Pingel, Volker (Bochum)
(ὕαλος; hýalos or ὕελος; hýelos, vitrum) [German version] I. Methods of Glass Production Glass is a mixture of silicic acid (silicon dioxide, quartz or quartz sand) and alkali (soda, sodium bicarbonate or potash) as flux [2; 7; 8]. Since it was apparently unknown in antiquity that alkali makes the mixture water-soluble, only glass with sufficient lime to neutralize this reaction is preserved. Producers of raw glass (ὑελέψης; hyelépsēs or ὑαλοψός; hyalopsós) knew from experience which sand (ψάμμος ὑαλικός; psámmos hyalikós) or which calcareous plant ashes made the glass durable. Up i…

Minting

(2,959 words)

Author(s): von Kaenel, Hans-Markus (Frankfurt/Main) | Klose, Dietrich (Munich) | Pingel, Volker (Bochum)
I. Classical Antiquity [German version] A. Coins and coinage. General Coins, a particular, developmentally late form of money, are handy, usually are round pieces of metal made of gold, electron, silver, copper or copper alloys. The metal exhibits a prescribed composition (fineness), and the coins a weight defined by the applicable standard (Coinage, standards of). Coins bear signs on their obverse and the reverse: a design and usually an inscription. Through their characteristics, coins could be recognized as the product of those authorities (society or ruler) wh…

Gold

(3,476 words)

Author(s): Riederer, Josef (Berlin) | Wartke, Ralf-B. (Berlin) | Pingel, Volker (Bochum) | Schneider, Helmuth (Kassel)
I. General [German version] A. Gold and gold deposits Gold is a soft precious metal that can be shaped well mechanically and so can be worked easily into sheets and wires, but it has a relatively high melting point at 1063°C that makes casting difficult. It is relatively rare in nature where it is present in the form of gold aggregates in solid rock from which it is extracted through mining methods, or it is present in the form of gold particles or grains in sandy deposits of weathered primary rock, from…

Silver

(2,474 words)

Author(s): Riederer, Josef (Berlin) | Niemeyer, Hans Georg (Hamburg) | Pingel, Volker (Bochum) | Neudecker, Richard (Rome)
[German version] I. Definition Silver (ἀργύριον/ argýrion, ἄργυρος/ árgyros; Latin argentum) is a precious metal, which in Antiquity was extracted primarily by smelting silver-bearing ores of lead. Four different kinds occur naturally: 1. as pure silver; 2. as silver ore; 3. as a component of galena, the only economically interesting ore of lead; 4. in alloy with gold, i.e. as electrum (Elektron), in which the gold content can amount to less than 30 %. Pure silver is rare and its surface corrodes, so that…

Fortifications

(2,871 words)

Author(s): Burckhardt, Leonhard (Basle) | Miller, Martin (Berlin) | Blech, Michael (Madrid) | Pingel, Volker (Bochum) | Baatz, Dietwulf (Bad Homburg)
[German version] I. Greece After the massive Mycenaean fortified palaces had been abandoned, several centuries passed before larger fortifications were again built in Greece. During the Geometric Period fortification construction in the motherland remained modest. Simple structures were built that left few if any remains, and the ruins of Mycenaean fortifications sufficed for protection requirements. However, citadels (acropoleis), peninsulas, and other topographically suitable locations were fortif…

Salt

(1,504 words)

Author(s): Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin) | Germer, Renate (Hamburg) | Giovannini, Adalberto (Geneva) | Pingel, Volker (Bochum)
[German version] I. Ancient Near East and Egypt Salt (Sumerian mun; Akkadian ṭabtu; Hittite puti; Hebrew mælaḥ; Egyptian sm.t) played an important role in all ancient Near Eastern cultures and in Egypt. In often high temperatures, the supply of salt was essential to life: salt was therefore part of workers' ordinary rations in Mesopotamia and Egypt (Rations). It was esp. used to season foods and to preserve meat and fish. In medicine, too, salt was used internally and externally. Salt was an important ingredient…

Glas

(1,571 words)

Author(s): Platz-Horster, Gertrud (Berlin) | Wartke, Ralf-B. (Berlin) | Pingel, Volker (Bochum)
(ὕαλος oder ὕελος, vitrum) [English version] I. Methoden der Glasherstellung G. ist ein Gemisch aus Kieselsäure (Siliciumdioxid, Quarz oder Quarzsand) und Alkali (Soda, Natron oder Pottasche) als Flußmittel [2; 7; 8]. Da in der Ant. offenbar unbekannt war, daß Alkali das Gemenge wasserlöslich macht, ist nur G. mit genügend Kalk erhalten, der diese Reaktion aufhebt. Hersteller von Rohglas (ὑελέψης oder ὑαλοψός) wußten aus Erfahrung, welcher Sand (ψάμμος ὑαλικός) oder welche kalkhaltige Pflanzenasche das G. dauerhaft machte. Rohglas wurde bis in röm. Zeit nur in wenigen s…

Gold

(3,039 words)

Author(s): Riederer, Josef (Berlin) | Wartke, Ralf-B. (Berlin) | Pingel, Volker (Bochum) | Schneider, Helmuth (Kassel)
I. Allgemeines [English version] A. Gold und Goldvorkommen G. ist ein weiches, mechanisch gut zu verformendes und somit einfach zu Blechen und Drähten zu verarbeitendes Edelmetall, hat aber mit 1063°C einen relativ hohen Schmelzpunkt, der das Gießen erschwert. Es kommt in der Natur relativ selten vor, und zwar in Form von G.-Aggregaten im festen Gestein, aus dem es mit bergmännischen Methoden gewonnen wird, oder in Form von G.-Flittern oder -Körnern in sandigen Ablagerungen verwitterter Primärgesteine, …

Salz

(1,399 words)

Author(s): Germer, Renate (Hamburg) | Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin) | Giovannini, Adalberto (Genf) | Pingel, Volker (Bochum)
[English version] I. Alter Orient und Ägypten S. (sumerisch mun; akkadisch ṭabtu; hethitisch puti; hebräisch mælaḥ; äg. sm.t) spielte in allen altoriental. Kulturen und in Äg. eine wichtige Rolle. Bei den teilweise hohen Temperaturen war S.-Zufuhr lebensnotwendig; so war S. ein Teil der normalen Arbeiterrationen in Mesopot. und Äg. (Ration). Es diente v. a. zum Würzen von Speisen wie auch zum Konservieren von Fleisch und Fisch. Auch in der Medizin wurde S. innerlich und äußerlich verwendet. S. war ein wichtiger…

Münzprägung

(2,483 words)

Author(s): von Kaenel, Hans-Markus (Frankfurt/Main) | Klose, Dietrich (München) | Pingel, Volker (Bochum)
I. Klassische Antike [English version] A. Münzen und Münzprägung Allgemeines Die Münze, eine besondere, entwicklungsgeschichtlich späte Form von Geld, ist ein handliches, meist rundes Metallstückchen aus Gold, Elektron, Silber, Kupfer bzw. Kupferlegierungen. Das Metall weist eine vorgegebene Zusammensetzung (Feingehalt) auf, die Mz. ein über den zugrundegelegten Gewichtsstandard definiertes Gewicht (Münzfuß). Auf Vorder- und Rückseite trägt die Mz. Zeichen: ein Bild und meist eine Schrift. Durch ihre Eigenschaften gab sich die Mz. als Erzeugnis derjenigen Au…

Befestigungswesen

(2,623 words)

Author(s): Burckhardt, Leonhard (Basel) | Miller, Martin (Berlin) | Blech, Michael (Madrid) | Pingel, Volker (Bochum) | Baatz, Dietwulf (Bad Homburg)
[English version] I. Griechenland Nach Aufgabe der massiven myk. Palastburgen dauerte es mehrere Jh., bis in Griechenland wieder größere Befestigungen errichtet wurden. Während der geom. Zeit blieb der Festungsbau im Mutterland bescheiden. Man baute einfache Anlagen, von denen kaum Überreste vorhanden sind, oder es genügten die Ruinen der myk. Burgen für das Schutzbedürfnis der Menschen. Auf den Inseln der Ägäis und in Ionien wurden dagegen zum Schutz vor Seeräubern (Thuk. 1,5) bzw. gegen den Druck aus dem Landesinnern …

Agriculture

(7,403 words)

Author(s): Hruška, Blahoslav (Prague) | Pingel, Volker (Bochum) | Schneider, Helmuth (Kassel) | Osborne, Robin (Oxford) | Schreiner, Peter (Cologne) | Et al.
I. Near East and Egypt [German version] A. Introduction In the Near Orient (particularly the southern Levant and Syria) and Egypt, a fundamental change in the history of mankind occurred 12,000 years ago: the transition from the hunter-gatherer life of paleolithic times to neolithic agrarian society. In the so-called ‘fertile crescent’ and in Egypt, agriculture almost always included livestock farming. Agriculture also encompassed the planting of fruit trees, viticulture and horticulture. The methods of food production led to increasing freedom from dependency on e…

Tumulus

(4,351 words)

Author(s): Steimle, Christopher (Erfurt) | Hiesel, Gerhard (Freiburg) | Jung, Reinhard (Berlin) | Hülden, Oliver (Tübingen) | Naso, Alessandro (Udine) | Et al.
(Latin 'hill', 'funerary mound', pl. tumuli; Greek τύμβος/ týmbos, σῆμα/ sêma; χῶμα/ chôma). I. Definition, distribution, function [German version] A. Definition Tumulusis a general term for a mound, as a rule artificial and usually round or oval in plan, associated with a burial ('burial mounds', as opposed, e.g., to prehistoric settlement mounds). Tumulus burial (‘mound burial’) describes all burials that have been covered by a mound. Tumulus is also used in archaeology as a technical term for burial mounds outsid…

Landwirtschaft

(6,774 words)

Author(s): Hruška, Blahoslav (Prag) | Pingel, Volker (Bochum) | Schneider, Helmuth (Kassel) | Osborne, Robin (Oxford) | Schreiner, Peter (Köln) | Et al.
I. Vorderasien und Ägypten [English version] A. Einleitung Im Vorderen Orient (bes. südl. Levante und Syrien) und Äg. ereignete sich vor etwa 12000 Jahren eine tiefgreifende Wende in der Gesch. der Menschheit: der Übergang vom Jäger- und Sammlertum des Paläolithikum zur Ackerbaugesellschaft des Neolithikum. Ackerbau wurde im sog. “Fruchtbaren Halbmond” und in Äg. fast immer mit Viehhaltung verbunden. Die L. umfaßte auch Anpflanzung von Fruchtbäumen, Weinbau und Gartenkultur. Die Methoden der Nahrungserzeugung führten zu steigender Unabhängigkeit gegenüber den Zu…

Weapons

(2,508 words)

Author(s): Hausleiter, Arnulf (Berlin) | Hiesel, Gerhard (Freiburg) | Niemeyer, Hans Georg (Hamburg) | Blech, Michael (Madrid) | Kohler, Christoph (Bad Krozingen) | Et al.
[German version] I. Ancient Near East and Egypt Weapons were among the earliest artefacts fashioned by humans and their ancestors. Stone arrowheads and blades were the first recognizable weapons in the ancient Near East into the Neolithic Period ( c. 10000 BC). From the 4th millennium BC, weapons were depicted on roll seals and stelae in scenes of warfare or hunting. Of maces suitable for close combat, generally only the heads (of stone or metal) survive. One exception is the deposit at the Chalcolithic find site of Naḥal Mišmār in P…

Necropoleis

(7,045 words)

Author(s): Tsochos, Charalampos (Erfurt) | Nissen, Hans Jörg (Berlin) | Niemeyer, Hans Georg (Hamburg) | Genz, Hermann (Istanbul) | Hiesel, Gerhard (Freiburg) | Et al.
[German version] I. Introduction The Greek word νεκρόπολις/ nekrópolis, ‘city of the dead’, is attested in Antiquity only in Strabo (17,1,10,14) as the name of a suburb of Alexandria [1] (Necropolis). Modern scholarship transfers the term necropolis to cemeteries of various cultures and time periods. General definitions as to shape and size do not exist. In this article, necropolis refers only to sites of a certain size and usually lying outside the settlements themselves. The size of a necropolis, the …

Pins

(3,978 words)

Author(s): Hurschmann, Rolf (Hamburg) | Giesen, Katharina (Tübingen) | Niemeyer, Hans Georg (Hamburg) | Prayon, Friedhelm (Tübingen) | Steimle, Christopher (Erfurt) | Et al.
[German version] I. General Pins and needles (βελόνη/ belónē, περόνη/ perónē, ῥαφίς/ rhaphís, Latin acus) were put to a variety of uses in the ancient household: they were used for hair, garments and sewing. They were also a utensil, for example, in the work of doctors (Surgical instruments), sailmakers etc. Tattoos were also done using special needles. The shape of the pin, long and thin with one sharp end, has not changed since prehistoric times. In sewing needles, the head is generally unadorned and flat; …

Crafts, Trade

(7,461 words)

Author(s): van de Mieroop, Marc (New York) | Wiesehöfer, Josef (Kiel) | Pingel, Volker (Bochum) | Bieg, Gebhard (Tübingen) | Burford-Cooper, Alison (Ann Arbor) | Et al.
[German version] I. Ancient Orient and Egypt Crafts in Egypt, in Syria-Palestine and in Mesopotamia can be best categorized by the materials employed: stone, bone and other animal products, clay and glass, metals, wood, wool and flax and leather, as well as reed and plant fibres. These were used to make objects of the most varied kinds, from cooking-pots to finely worked pieces of jewellery. For the building trade, stone, clay, reed and wood were important. For the investigation of the various forms of…

Funerary architecture

(5,482 words)

Author(s): Kammerer-Grothaus, Helke (Bremen) | Seidlmayer, Stephan Johannes (Berlin) | Hauser, Stefan R. (Berlin) | Niemeyer, Hans Georg (Hamburg) | Prayon, Friedhelm (Tübingen) | Et al.
[German version] I. Definition Funerary architecture (FA) refers to architectonically designed structures built above the contemporary ground level for the purpose of  burial, as opposed to underground hypogea, which have rooms for the cult of the dead and hero cult. Columbaria can combine both types. Hypogea with a ground level cult room influenced the early Christian martyria above the graves. Regarding further aspects of FA, cf.  Hypogaeum;  Maussolleum;  Necropoleis. Kammerer-Grothaus, Helke (Bremen) II. Egypt and the Near East [German version] A. Egypt The Egyptian buria…
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