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Leo I

(910 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
Leo I (d. 461), known as Leo the Great, was pope beginning in the summer of 440. Not much is known about Leo’s early years. Suggestions that he was born in Tuscany remain improbable as long as other signs point to an urban Roman origin. Before becoming pope, he was (arch)deacon at the papal ¶ court, and as early as 440 Empress Galla Placidia entrusted him with a political mission to Gaul. Leo devoted a great deal of energy to his urban Roman congregation, particularly through his sermons, and encouraged the production of narrative and pictorial cyc…

Tertullian

(762 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus (ca. 160–ca. 225) was an African church father who wrote primarily in Latin. Texts available for a reconstruction of Tertullian’s biography include, next to his own writings, accounts by Eusebius (ca. 260–ca. 340) and Jerome (ca. 345–420). It has been shown, however, that information from the fourth-century authors should not be used uncritically. From his own writings it appears that Tertullian’s father possibly was in the military, and one could add Jerome’s account that his father was a centurio proconsularis, thus a centurion in the cohors …

Jerome

(956 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
Jerome (ca. 345–420), born Eusebius Hieronymus (perhaps as early as 333), was an outstanding translator, exegete, and theologian of the early church. He was the son of a well-to-do Christian family that owned property in Strido (near Emona, or modern Ljubljana, Slovenia). He was educated in Rome, and his teachers included, until 363, the famous grammarian Aelius Donatus (though not Marius Victorinus, neither does Jerome seem to have been closely acquainted with Ambrose in Rome; he did, however, …

Sozomenos

(312 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[English version] Salamanes Hermeias (Σῳζομενός, Σαλαμάνης Ἑρμείας), wahrscheinlich in Bethelea bei Gaza (evtl. das h. Bait Lāhiyā) in einer begüterten christl. Familie geb. (vgl. Phot. cod. 30; Soz. 5,15,14). Geburts- und Todesdatum lassen sich nicht ermitteln. Der palaestinische, z. T. auch monastische Kontext seiner Jugend (Mönchtum) prägt noch seine zw. 439 und 450 n. Chr. verfaßte Ἐκκλησιαστικὴ ἱστορία/‘Kirchengeschichte (=‘K.; Soz. 1,1,19). Nach 425 arbeitete S. als Rechtsanwalt (Soz. 2,3,10) bzw. scholastikós (so Phot. l.c. und die Tite…

Victricius

(190 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[English version] Geb. um 340 n. Chr., beendete zw. 360 und 363 nach seinem Übertritt zum christl. Glauben den Militärdienst (so jedenfalls Paul. Nol. epist. 18,7 mit detaillierter Beschreibung der Umstände) und wurde ca. 380/386 Bischof von Ratomagus (h. Rouen). Aus dieser Zeit sind Briefe des Paulinus [5] von Nola (epist. 18 und 37) und des röm. Bischofs Innocentius I. ([1. Bd. 1, 286]: ein liber regularum) an ihn erhalten. Schwerpunkt seiner Arbeit waren der Kampf gegen die homöische Reichskirchentheologie (Trinität III.; Arianismus), die Förderung des Mö…

Vincentius von Lerinum

(536 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[English version] I. Leben Theologe, gest. vor 450 n. Chr. V. von Lerinum (Lérins) starb vor 450 n. Chr., vielleicht um 435. Nach Gennadius (De viris illustribus 65) und Eucherius [3] (De laude heremi 42; Instructiones I, praef. p. 66,5 Wotke) wurde er in Nordfrankreich geb. und verfolgte einen profanen Lebenslauf, bevor er sich vor 427 als Priestermönch auf der kleineren der beiden Inseln Lerinum/Lérins vor Cannes niederließ (Saint-Honorat), die v. a. adligen Flüchtlingen aus Gallien als “Flüchtlingsklos…

Origenes

(2,751 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[English Version] (ca.185/186 Alexandrien – ca.253/254) I. Leben Für die Rekonstruktion der Biogr. des O. ist man auf Angaben bei seinem Enkelschüler Eusebius von Caesarea (h.e. VI 1–39) angewiesen, die einschlägigen Partien der »Apologie für O.« des Pamphilus von Caesarea (CPG 1, 1715) wurden durch Rufinus von Aquileia nicht ins Lat. übers. und sind mit dem griech. Original verloren; möglicherweise gehen aber einzelne Nachrichten bei Hieronymus, Rufinus und Photius von Konstantinopel (bibl. codex 118)…

Satornil

(156 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[English Version] (Saturninus). Unter den frühen Gnostikern (Gnosis/Gnostizismus: III.,2.), die auf Simon Magus folgen, nennt Irenaeus von Lyon einen Saturninus aus Antiochien (haer. I 24, 1f.), der im frühen 2.Jh. gelebt haben dürfte. Er schreibt ihm die Lehre zu, daß Welt und Mensch von sieben bestimmten Engeln geschaffen wurden, der Mensch nach dem Bild »der höchsten Macht«, die dem Gebilde auch den »Lebensfunken« gab. Die Engel wiederum sind nach S. Geschöpfe des obersten unbekannten Vaters, d…

Paulus

(200 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[English Version] von Bēth Ukkāme (= Paulus, der Schwarze, oder Paulos Melanos; um 500 Alexandrien – 584 Konstantinopel). Der in Alexandrien aufgewachsene Archimandrit P. wurde 564 von Jakob Baradaeus zum antichalcedonensischen (jakobitischen) Patriarch von Antiochien geweiht (Monophysiten/Monophysitismus) und amtierte bis 577. Seine Amtszeit war durch schwere kirchenpolit. Auseinandersetzungen gekennzeichnet: Einer vorübergehenden Annäherung des Patriarchen an das Bekenntnis des Reichskonzils Cha…

Neunicaenismus

(481 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[English Version] . Mit dem neuzeitlichen Begriff N. (bzw. den inhaltlich parallelen Ausdrücken »Jungnicaenismus« oder »Neonicaenismus«), der vermutlich auf F. Loofs zurückgeht, wird eine bestimmte trinitätstheol. Position des späteren 4.Jh. bez. (Arius/Arianismus), die allein schon durch ihre Normierung 381 auf dem zweiten Reichskonzil von Konstantinopel (: IV., 1.) und in anderen Bekenntnistexten (Symbolum Quicumque) zum identitätsbildenden traditionellen Lehrbestand der meisten christl. Kirchen und Glaubensgemeinschaften gehört. Freilich hat sich in den l…

Traditio Apostolica

(246 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[English Version] (sog. Kirchenordnung des Hippolyt, TradAp). 1910 bzw. 1916 entdeckten E. Schwartz und Richard Hugh Connolly, daß sich einige spätantike Kirchenordnungen als Bearb. bzw. Übers. einer (verlorenen) Grundschrift stemmatisch zuordnen lassen. Beide Forscher nahmen an, daß diese den Titel TradAp ( ᾿Αποστολικη` παρα´δοσις/apostolikē´ parádosis, »apostolische Überlieferung«) getragen habe und von Hippolyt vf. wurde. Diese doppelte Hypothese wird heute nur noch von einer Minderheit als zutreffend angenommen. Bestätigt hat sich dagegen die Annahme eines…

Suger

(178 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[English Version]   von St. Denis (um 1081 Argenteuil – 1151 St. Denis). S. stammte aus einer wohlhabenden Familie und wurde um 1091 Oblate im fränkischen Königskloster St. Denis vor den Toren von Paris. 1101 legte er die Profeß ab und verteidigte 1107 vor Papst Paschalis II. die Exemtion des Klosters. Nach verschiedenen polit. und kirchl. Aufgaben wurde er 1122 zum Abt gewählt. Er reformierte nicht nur sein Kloster, sondern amtierte auch als Regent von Frankreich (1137–1140 sowie 1147–1149). Berüh…

Nestorianismus

(870 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[English Version] . Der Begriff N. kann in zweifacher Weise verwendet werden: Erstens bez. er die Theol. (und gelegentlich auch die Kirchenorganisation) der heutigen »Hl. Apostolischen und Kath. Ass. Kirche des Ostens«, deren Glieder auch »Nestorianer« (oder »Ostsyrer« bzw. »Chaldäer«; Apostolische Kirche des Ostens) genannt werden, weil sie 484/486 n.Chr. in bewußtem Gegensatz zur röm. Reichskirche die Christologie des Nestorius annahmen, die auf dem Konzil von Ephesus 431 verurteilt worden war (Nestoriani…

Ptolemaios

(382 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[English Version] (Ptolemaeus), Gnostiker. P. lebte als freier christl. Lehrer um die Mitte des 2.Jh. in Rom und war in der »Schule« des röm. Lehrers Valentinus tätig (Iren.haer. I prol. 2), möglicherweise deswegen, weil er dessen persönlicher Schüler war. Nur noch ein einziger Text kann P. mit Sicherheit zugeschrieben werden: der bei Epiphanius von Salamis überlieferte Lehrbrief an die röm. Matrone Flora über Bibelauslegung, das atl. Gesetz und die Prinzipientheorie (Epiph.haer. 33,3–7). Ein Re…

Apostles' Creed

(608 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[German Version] The received text (T, first attested by Pirmin, Scarapsus §§10/12/28) of the creed known in the modern period as the Symbolum apostolicum or Symbolum Apostolorum goes back to the so-called Old Roman creed (R). The great majority of scholars accept the hypothesis of J. Ussher, archbishop of Armagh (1647), that R is first attested in Greek in Marcellus of Ancyra (Epiphanius, Haer. 72.3.1 = BSGR §17) or in the Psalter of Aethelstan (§18); the Latin text can be reconstructed from Rufinus's Explanatio symboli (§19). From 1910–1916 onward,…

Cappadocian Theology

(542 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[German Version] The monastic theologians and bishops, Basil the Great, his brother Gregory of Nyssa and their friend Gregory of Nazianzus came from the province of Cappadocia in Asia Minor and spent most of their lives there. For this reason, they are often referred to by modern historians and theologians as “the three great Cappadocians.” A cousin of Gregory of Nazianzus and colleague of Basil, Amphilochius of Iconium, is sometimes added to their number. The t…

Dionysius of Milan

(138 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[German Version] officiated from about 351 as bishop of Milan. On account of his bold stance at the synod held there in 355 (Homoeans), Constantius II banished him to Armenia together with Eusebius of Vercelli and Lucifer of Cagliari; he died there. Perhaps still in the 4th century, his remains were brought back to Milan, though certainly not under his second successor Ambrose of Milan, as a secondary passage in a let-¶ ter of Basil the Great would seem to want to suggest (Bas. Ep. 197.2; cf. BHL 2168–2170). Christoph Markschies Bibliography S. Cavallin, “Die Legendenbildung um den Mai…

Dynamism

(134 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[German Version] Traditional terminology in the history of dogma and theology distinguishes between “Dynamic” and a “Modalist” Monarchianism. It thereby subsumes under a common generic term (although see A. v. Harnack) the groups that energetically combatted the Logos theology (Logos) and the doctrine of a plurality of divine hypostases (Hypostasis; in e.g. …

Ptolemy the Gnostic

(406 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[German Version] Ptolemy worked in Rome as a freelance Christian teacher around the middle of the 2nd century; he was active in the “school” of the Roman teacher Valentinus (Iren. Haer. I prol. 2), possibly because he was a personal disciple of Valentinus. Only one text survives that can be ascribed to Ptolemy with assurance: an instructional epistle to the Roman matron Flora, preserved by Epiphanius of Salamis ( Haer. 33.3–7). The epistle deals with biblical interpretation, the Old Testament law, and the theory of principles. A brief discussion of Valentinian Gn…

Baumgarten-Crusius, Ludwig Friedrich Otto

(205 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[German Version] (Jul 31, 1788, Merseburg – May 31, 1843, Jena) studied classical philology and theology in Leipzig. After completing his habilitation in 1809 in the philosophical faculty there, he became associate professor of theology in 1812 and full professor of theology in 1817 in Jena. Baumgarten's erudition is demonstrated by his numerous articles on ancient philology and church h…

Maximilla, Priscilla and Quintilla

(236 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[German Version] Together with Montanus, the three women belong to the principal prophetic personalities of what later came to be known as the Montanism of Asia Minor. The variant name form “Prisca” is also attested for Priscilla in the writings of Tertullian. Seven of their prophetic logia have been preserved (nos. 5–11, Heine). Quintilla may well have belonged to a second generation of prophetesses, as her name is not explicitly mentioned in the earliest sources (cf. however Eus. Hist. eccl. V 18.6). How the exact hierarchical and institutional relationship of the origin…

Migne, Jacques Paul

(339 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[German Version] (Oct 25, 1800, St.-Fluor, Département Cantal – Oct 24, 1875, Paris), son of a merchant, began his theological studies in 1817 at the theological college in Orléans, where he soon became prefect of studies and later a lecturer. In 1824 he was ordained to the priesthood. From 1833 he worked as a journalist in Paris; with the support of patrons, he founded several journals that attracted great attention but had to be discontinued for financial reasons. In 1836 he turned to publishing…

Suger

(206 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[German Version] (c. 1081, Argenteuil – 1151, St.-Denis), was born to a wealthy family; c. 1091 he became an oblate in the royal Frankish abbey of St.-Denis before the gates of Paris. In 1101 he took his solemn vows; in 1107 he defended the exempt status of the abbey before Pope Paschal II. After serving in various political and ecclesiastical offices, he was elected abbot in 1122. He reformed his own abbey and also served as regent of France from 1137 to 1140 and from 1147 to 1149. His partial reconstruction of the abbey church (1140–1144) is famous; he discussed it in his De consecratione and De o…

Celestine I, Pope

(122 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[German Version] (422–432). As the successor of Boniface I, Celestine attempted to consolidate the Roman primacy, but he encountered the resistance of the West African bishops. Moreover, he opposed Pelagianism (Pelagius) and from 430 Nestorius; the majority of his correspondence relates to this conflict. ¶ Eventually, he sent Germanus of Auxerre in 429 and “the Celtic bishop” Palladius in 431 to England and Ireland for the anti-Pelagian mission. Christoph Markschies Bibliography CPL 1650–1654 PL 50, 417–558 ACO I/1/7, 125–137; I/2/5, 5–101 On Celestine: E. Caspar, Geschichte des…

Early Church

(6,745 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[German Version] I. The Term – II. Periods of the Early Church – III. The History of the Church and of Christianity in Antiquity – IV. Review I. The Term The term “early church” is one of the most common English expressions used to designate the church during the times of the emperors in Greco-Roman antiquity, i.e. the Christian church from its beginnings until the end of antiquity or Late Antiquity. The end of this …

Montanism

(1,168 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[German Version] I. Terminology and Sources – II. History – III. Theology I. Terminology and Sources Since the late 4th century, the adherents of a prophetic movement in early Christianity dating from the 2nd century have been referred to polemically as “Montanists,” and the movement itself was called “Montanism” (e.g Cyril of Jerusalem, Catecheses XVI 8.6 or [Pseudo-?]Didymus, De trinitate III 18.23 and 41 [PG 39, 881 B, 924 C, also 984 B]). This terminology, which refers to a prophet Montanus, has been accepted by modern scholarship, although the m…

Ambrose of Milan (Saint)

(439 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[German Version] (333/334, Trier – 397) was an important bishop and is regarded as one of the four teachers of the Western Church since the end of the 7th century. Ambrose was from a prominent family of Roman (city?) Christians; educated in Rome, he was the governor of Aemilia Liguria with a seat in Milan between 372 and 374. In 374, as the compromise candidat…

Neo-Niceanism

(527 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[German Version] The modern term “neo-Niceanism” (Ger. Neunicaenismus), with its variants, is said to go back to F. Loofs. It denotes a specific Trinitarian position of the later 4th century (Arius) that was made normative in 381 at the Second Imperial Council of Constantinople (Constantinople, Council of: IV, 1) and in other confessional documents ( Symbolum Quicumque ). It belongs to the traditional corpus of teaching that shapes the identity of most Christian churches and faith communities. It is true that in the last 100 years the content of the expression “neo-Nicea…

Aquarians

(150 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[German Version] The use of water instead of wine in the Lord's Supper is attested esp. in the so-called NT Apocrypha ( Acts Pet. II 2; Acts Paul 7; Acts Thom. 120–21/152/158[?]), but it seems also to have been customary occasionally when wine was unavailable in the mainstream church ( Martyrdom of Pionius 3.1); Irenaeus ascribed a corresponding practice to Jewish Christians ( Haer. V 1.3); Clement of Alexandria to Encratites ( Paedagogus II 32.3–4; Stromata I 96.1); Epiphanius to Marcion ( Haer. 42.3.3); Theodoret to students of Tatian called ῾Υδροπαραστάται/ Hydroparastátai (Thdt. Hae…

Musanus

(117 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[German Version] According to Eusebius ( Hist. eccl. IV 28, cf. also 21) Musanus wrote a lost, “very elegant” book against people who had gone over to the so-called Encratites. Both the author's date and his place remain unclear. Suggestions, among others, are (because of the statement of Eusebius) the reign of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (161–180), or on the basis of Eusebius, Chronicorum liber ad annum, 2220 the time of Septimius Severus (193–211), and the regions of Egypt or Asia Minor. Christoph Markschies Bibliography A. v. Harnack, Geschichte der altchristlichen Litteratur bis E…

Encratites

(130 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[German Version] The Early Church's heresiologies employ this term (derived from Gk ἐγκράτεια/ enkráteia, “self-control,” “abstinence”) to describe a group of ascestics (Asceticism) and date their origins to the 2nd century. Irenaeus traces them back to Saturninus of Antioch and Marcion ( Haer. I 28.1); he, like Eusebius of Caesarea, names as founder the Syrian Tatian (Eus. Hist. eccl. IV 29.6). Typical ascetic positions are attributed to them, for example the renunciation of marriage and the consumption of …

Montanus

(124 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[German Version] was one of the three founders of a 2nd-century prophetic movement in Asia Minor (Maximilla, Priscilla and Quintilla), which since the 4th century has been called Montanism after him. As his Phrygian name indicates, he apparently came from Asia Minor. Later heresiology (Heresy: II, 2) in authors of the 4th century transmits further but probably unhistorical details of his life. Thus he is said to have been originally a priest of Apollo ( Disputatio [in Heine, 123]) or Cybele (Jer. Ep. 41,4), and to have hanged himself. Epiphanius of Salamis records four prophe…

Lietzmann, Hans

(458 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[German Version] (Mar 3, 1875, Düsseldorf – Jun 25, 1942, Locarno). After passing his Abitur in Wittenberg, Lietzmann went to Jena in 1893 to study classical philology and theology, but it was his studies at Bonn from 1894 to 1898 that enduringly influenced him. There his real academic mentor was H. Usener, a renowned scholar in classical philology and religious studies, from whom he acquired a love of philological detail, a particular concern for large-scale religio-historical relationships, and a great inte…

Paul Melanos

(230 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[German Version] of Bēth Ukkāme (Paul the Black, Paulos Melanos; c. 500 Alexandria – 584 Constantinople). In 564 Jacob Baradaeus consecrated Archimandrite Paul, who had grown up in Alexandria, as the anti-Chalcedonian (Jacobite) patriarch of Antioch (Monophysites), a position he held until 577. His tenure was beset by serious church-political conflicts. A temporary flirtation of the patriarch with the creed of Chalcedon affirming the two natures of Christ (c. 571) was followed by an abrupt dissoci…

Nestorianism

(956 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[German Version] The term Nestorianism can be used in two senses. First, it can designate the theology (and sometimes also the ecclesiastical organization) of today’s Holy Apostolic and Catholic Assyrian Church of the East, whose members are called Nestorians (or East Syrians or Chaldeans; Apostolic Church of the East) because in 484/486, in conscious departure from the Roman imperial church, they adopted the Christology of Nestorianism, which had been condemned at the Council of Ephesus in 431 (Nes…

Saturninus of Antioch

(162 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[German Version] Among the early Gnostic (Gnosis: III, 2) followers of Simon Magus, Irenaeus of Lyon mentions Saturninus of Antioch ( Haer. I 24.1f.), who probably lived in the early 2nd century. Irenaeus claims he taught that the world and humankind were created by seven individual angels and that humans were created in the image of “the supreme power,” which also gave them the “spark of life.” The angels in turn, according to Saturninus, were creatures of the supreme unknown father; the “God of the Jews” was one o…

Enhypostasis/Anhypostasis

(621 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[German Version] Leontius of Jerusalem and other neo-Chalcedonians (Neo-Chalcedonism) use the Greek adjective ἐνυπόστατος/ enhypóstatos from Late Antiquity to describe their view that the dogma of the human and divine natures of Christ as articulated by the Council of Chalcedon (Christology) is not referring to independent hypostases or persons, and that instead each of the two natures exists “enhypostatically” in relation to the one person of Christ and to the one hypostasis of the Trinity in three hypostases (Leontius, Adversus Nestorianos II 13 [PG 86, 1561 …

Origen

(3,010 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[German Version] I. Life – II. Works – III. Theology (c. 185/186 Alexandria – c. 253/254) I. Life In reconstructing the life of Origen, we must rely on information given by his grandson and pupil Eusebius of Caesarea ( Hist. eccl. VI 1–39). The relevant portions of the Apology for Origen of Pamphilus of Caesarea (CPG 1, 1715) were not translated into Latin by Tyrannius Rufinus and have been lost with the Greek original, but certain statements by Jerome, Rufinus, and Photius of Constantinople (Bibl. Codex 118) may derive from that source. The detailed section in Epiphanius of Salamis ( Haer. 64…

Traditio apostolica

(252 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[German Version] (also called the Church Order of Hippolytus). E. Schwartz (1910) and Richard Hugh Connolly (1916) discovered that a few Late Antique church orders could be treated stemmatically as editions or translations of a (lost) literary archetype. Both scholars theorized that it had the title (᾿Αποστολικὴ παράδοσις/ apostolikḗ parádosis, “Apostolic Tradition”) and had been written by Hippolytus. Today only a minority of scholars accept this double hypothesis. What has been confirmed is the hypothesis of a single archetype, probably in Greek, of these chur…

Christopher, Saint

(422 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[German Version] The earliest evidence for the veneration of a Christopher goes back to the year 452, when the honorific title Χριστόφορος/ Christóphoros (“Christ-bearer”) first came into use as a proper name ( ASS Nov. II/2, 396 no. 39). The Acts of Saint Christopher (BHG 309) date from the early 6th century. They apparently equate Christopher with Christianus, a dog-headed soldier saint from the Acts of Bartholomew, who was called Reprebos before his baptism and who came from the land of the cannibals. Early Byzantine iconography accordingly portrayed…

Congregational Order

(159 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph
[German Version] Norms for the life and theology of Christian communities in the first century were primarily set by the two-Testament Bible, which had become a collection of authoritative texts, but also by church orders in the true sense, by the developing confession (of faith), initially set down in free formulations, and by theology, condensed into dogmas since the imperial councils of the 4th century (Nicea, Constantinople: IV). Naturally, after the demise o…

Agape

(299 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Berlin)
[German version] (ἀγάπη; agápē) In the NT (Jud 12) agápē is also used for the ‘love feast’ if it is an occasion of brotherly love (Tert. Apol. 39,16: agápē is equal to dilectio). Tertullian described a communal meal of the congregation comparable to ancient sacral meals. Since  Ignatius ( c. AD 110) admonished the community in Smyrna not to hold the agape without the bishop, he was probably referring to a joint celebration of the Eucharist with the ordinary meal as documented by Paul for Corinth (1 Cor 11,20-34) and which was in part custom until the 5th …

Antiochene School

(216 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Berlin)
[German version] This modern name describes a group of theologians who worked as exegetes. A true bond as a school can only be demonstrated for theologians who temporarily resided in Antiochia between c. 350 and c. 430, e.g.,  Diodorus of Tarsus, his students  Theodorus of Mopsuestia,  Iohannes Chrysostomos and their (?) student  Theodoretus of Cyrrhus. The characteristics of this school are apparent in its exegetical work, such as the methodological prologues of a commentary on the Psalms attributed to Diodorus (CPG 2,3818): int…

Carmen contra paganos

(123 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Berlin)
[German version] The Parisian Cod. Lat. 8084 of Prudentius transmits in fol. 156r-158v 122 v. an anonymous defamatory poem (CPL 1431), directed against a praefectus ( urbis or praetorio orientis), presumably Virius Nicomachus  Flavianus [2] the Elder, but alternatively perhaps  Vettius Agorius Praetextatus. The text is not only a Christian reaction to the pagan Roman renaissance under  Symmachus, but also a testimony of the Christian reception of Virgil. The Carmen contra paganos belongs to the genre of apologetic poetry, and makes interesting references to the pag…

Fortunat(ian)us

(124 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Berlin)
[German version] F., an African, held office in 342-368/370 as bishop of  Aquileia. According to Jerome he wrote a gospel commentary Titulis ordinatis brevi sermone rusticoque (Jer. Vir. ill. 97,1) under Constantius [2] II (337-361). Perhaps three smaller fragments have been preserved (CPL 104); Jerome used the work for his own Matthew commentary (Praef.: PL 26,200 and Ep. 10,3). F. received  Athanasius in Aquileia in 345 but then pressured  Liberius of Rome to be lenient towards the Homoean movement ( Arianism) under e…

Collectio Avellana

(126 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Berlin)
[German version] Between 556 and 561 a private collection was made in Rome of 243 letters from the pope and the emperor, emperor's edicts and rescripts, official reports, synodal decrees and creeds (inventory with evidence [1. 274-281]). The name of the collection derives from a MS earlier kept in the Umbrian monastery Santa Croce di Fonte Avellana; it is today kept in Rome (Vat. Lat. 4916). The inventory goes back to a (lost) document, which constituted a semi-official product of the Church polit…

Abgar Legend

(327 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Berlin)
[German version] The Abgar legend is a pseudepigraphic correspondence between  Jesus of Nazareth and king Abgar V. Ukkāmā (= the Black; Tac. Ann. 12,12,2) of Edessa, who ruled the kingdom of Osroene from 4 BC to AD 50. The oldest version in  Eusebius, who allegedly found the letters in the Edessene archives and translated them from Syriac (H.E. 1,13,6-21). A. supposedly heard of Jesus' healing and invited him to Edessa to be healed by him. In his answer Jesus praised the king as blessed but would …

Doketai

(403 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Berlin)
[German version] (δοκηταί; dokētaí). With this generic term or τῶν ... δοκιτῶν αἵρεσις ( tôn ... dokitôn haíresis, Theod. Epist. 82,1) ancient Christian theologians from the middle of the 5th cent., as also recent academic research, designated various points of view that (in the minds of their critics at any rate) call into question or even repudiate the real humanity of  Jesus Christ and postulate a ‘pseudo-body’. Opponents of  Ignatius of Antioch maintained for example that Christ had only appeared to suffer (…

Pectorius inscription

(202 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Berlin)
[German version] Inscription (IG XIV 2525 = SEG 29, 825 = [1]) on a marble panel discovered in 1839 at Augustodunum/ Autun. It consists of three elegiac distychs (V. 1-6) and five hexameters (V. 7-11). Alongside the Abercius inscription, it is one of the most significant examples of ancient Christian epigraphy; in its current form, it constitutes a funerary inscription commissioned by one Pectorius for his mother. The first six verses form the acrostic ΙΧΘΥΣΕ, so it must be assumed that this section of text is incompletely preserved ([1] ventures a completion: ἰχθύς/ ichthýs, ἐλπίς/ elpís…

Victricius

(212 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Berlin)
[German version] Born c. AD 340; after his conversion to the Christian faith, between 360 and 363 he ended his military service (according to Paul. Nol. epist. 18,7, at any rate, with detailed description of the circumstances) and c. 380/386 became bishop of Ratomagus (modern Rouen). Letters to him from Paulinus [5] of Nola (Epist. 18 and 37) and from the Roman bishop Innocentius I ([1. vol. 1, 286]: a liber regularum) from this period survive. The focus of his work was the battle against Homoean theology in the Imperial church (Trinity III; Arianism), the advanc…

Sermon, Homily

(1,744 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Berlin)
[German version] I. General remarks, concept and origins The term sermon refers to a type of speech (Greek ὁμιλία/ homilía, Latin sermo) given, beginning in the 2nd cent. AD, as part of an ancient Christian religious service (Cult, Cultus IV) following readings from the Holy Scriptures (Bible). The sermon dealt either with topics of the readings or with the current feast or festal period of the liturgical year, but also and increasingly with saints (B). Methods of interpretation that had been generally introduced (e…

Apostles, Letters of the

(262 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Berlin)
[German version] The Letters of the Apostles are ancient Christian ‘epistles’ attributed to an ἀπόστολος ( apóstolos): a) those that were included in the NT  canon in the first four cents. and b) those that belong to the  apocryphal literature: thus, 1. the pseudo-Pauline Laodicene Epistle, which is found in many Latin Bible MSS; 2. the correspondence between Paul and the Corinthians; 3. the correspondence between  Seneca and Paul; 4. the Epistle of pseudo-Titus ‘On the State of Chastity’; 5. the Epistula Petri, also from the correspondence preserved in the  Nag Hammadi G…

Cyprianus

(1,077 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Berlin)
[German version] [1] C. Gallus Heptateuch poet see  Heptateuch poet Markschies, Christoph (Berlin) [2] C. Thascius Caecili(an)us From AD 248/9 bishop of Carthago [German version] A. Biography Caecilius Cyprianus qui et Thascius (his transmitted name, combining his original Punic cognomen Thascius C. with a newly adopted Christian cognomen after his godfather Caecilianus, according to Pontius, vita 4 -- or rather Caecilius, according to Jer. Vir. ill. 67 [1. 110, n. 1]) was the son of wealthy parents. Prior to his conversion t…

Philostorgius

(207 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Berlin)
[German version] (Φιλοστόργιος; Philostórgios). The Church historian P. was born around AD 368 in Borissus/Cappadocia and remained a layman throughout his life. From 388 on he lived in Constantinople and expanded through travel the good education he had received. Of significance for his theological views was an encounter with his countryman Eunomius, whose neo-Arianism influenced his theology (Arianism B.3.; he rejected the concept of 'Anomoean' [3. 65,11-14 et passim]). Fragments of his history of the Arian controversy are found notably in the Passio of Artemius [2] [1. 169…

Apostolic Fathers

(178 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Berlin)
[German version] According to J. B. Cotelier, who coined it, the term includes the writings of three presumed students of Paul: 1.   the Epistle of Barnabas (Gal 2,1; 1 Cor 9,6); 2. two Epistles attributed to  Clement of Rome (Phil 4,3); 3. the ‘Shepherd of Hermas’ (Rom 16,4); and the works of two presumed students of John; 4. seven letters by bishop  Ignatius of Antioch; 5. a letter and other writings by Polycarp of Smyrna. Today it is customary to include: 6. fragments by bishop  Papias of Hiera…

Vincentius of Lerinum

(598 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Berlin)
[German version] I. Life Theologist, died before AD 450 V. of Lerinum (Lérins) died before AD 450, perhaps c. 435. According to Gennadius ( De viris illustribus 65) and Eucherius [3] ( De laude heremi 42; Instructiones I, praef. p. 66,5 Wotke) he was born in northern France and led a secular life, until he took up residence before 427 as a priest-monk on the smaller of the two islands of Lerinum/Lérins off the coast at Cannes (Saint-Honorat), which was used primarily by noble refugees from Gaul as a 'monastery of asylum' [5]. V. describes the seclusion of the place with traditional topoi as an e…

Barnabas

(144 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Berlin)
[German version] The well-off Levite B., who came from Cyprus, belonged temporarily to the closest circle of co-workers of  Paulus and, before that, to the prominent heads of the Antiochene community. After a missionary period together in Cyprus and Galatia with Paulus, it came to a severe conflict between both, as B. together with others in Antioch ( c. AD 48), revoked the table community between Jewish Christians and pagan-Christians (Gal 2,11-16). Whether he then went to Egypt, like some individual traditions seem to believe (e.g. Ps.-Clem. Hom. 1, …

Meletius of Antioch

(577 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Berlin)
[German version] came from a wealthy family from Melitene/Armenia Minor (Greg. Nyss. in Meletium, p. 444 Spira; Philostorgius, Hist. eccl. 5,5 = GCS 69,11 Bidez/Winkelmann), was privileged with a thorough education and then apparently lived as an ascetic. He was elected to be the successor of the deposed Homoiousian Eustathius [6], bishop of Sebaste, and advocated a theology in the tradition of Eusebius [7] of Caesaria from AD 357 as well as supporting the ecclesiastical politics of his successor …

Ruricius of Limoges

(170 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Berlin)
[German version] Christian bishop and author; initially married (wedding song: Sid. Apoll. Carm. 11), under the influence of Faustus [3] Reiensis he decided in 477 to lead an ascetic life and ultimately became a bishop in 485. He died shortly after 507. An epitaph on him and his successor, his grandson R. II, can be found in Venantius Fortunatus (Carm. 4,5). Two books with 18 or 64 (65) letters, as well as 14 letters to R., survive. They are primarily testimonials and 'everyday correspondence' of …

Hermas, Hermae Pastor

(628 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Berlin)
[German version] The work ‘The shepherd of H.’ (Greek only Ποιμήν; Poimḗn, Latin Liber pastoris nuntii paenitentiae or Liber Hermae prophetae) is a Christian prophetic script with the stylistic character of an  apocalypse but not wholly corresponding to this genre. The work places H. among the  Apostolic Fathers. The title ‘Shepherd’ (Ποιμήν) for the entire work appeared in the Canon Muratori, a substantial index of canons (more likely dated end of the 2nd cent. than the 4th cent.: l. 74), but it refers only to the second part of the work (visio 5 to sim…

Pachomius

(296 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Berlin)
[German version] (Παχώμιος; Pachmios). P. was born in AD 292, probably in Latopolis/Esna, and died of the plague in AD 346. He is regarded as the founder of cenobitic monasticism in Egypt and the author of the first regulations for monks. The Pachomian monastic community, which he founded, is called koinóbion (in the sense of koinōnía, 'community') throughout the Vita prima [2. 24]. P. was born into a pagan Egyptian family and converted to Christianity around the age of twenty when he enrolled in the army. He was baptised after he had returned to the tow…

Heraclas

(196 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Berlin)
[German version] Before his conversion to the Christian faith H. took lessons from the Platonic philosopher  Ammonius [9] Saccas (Euseb. Hist. eccl. 6,19,13) with his brother Plutarchus, who later died a martyr's death. After five years of instruction he met  Origenes there as a fellow student and then visited his class in Alexandria (Euseb. Hist. eccl. 6,3,2). At a certain point Origen made H. responsible for the beginning students (Euseb. Hist. eccl. 6,15). H. himself was a celebrated teacher (Euseb. Hist. eccl. 6,31,2) and apparently belonged to the presbyters who…

Barnabas, Epistle of

(220 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Berlin)
[German version] The writer of this treatise, written in the form of a letter, (CPG I 1050), who belongs to the so-called  Apostolic Fathers, does not give his name. The MSS as well as Christian theologians of the 2nd/3rd cents. like  Clemens and  Origenes (who regarded the letter as καθολικὴ ἐπιστολή: c. Cels. 1,63) state that the author is  Barnabas, the travelling companion of St. Paul. The first part (chs. 2-16) interprets holy Scripture (= the OT) in terms of God, Christ and the new people of…

Priscillianus, Priscillianism

(1,193 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Berlin)
Spanish ascetic and Christian theologian of Late Antiquity; term used for the ascetic movement he founded. [German version] I. Life of Priscillianus and history of Priscillianism A great deal of P.' biography remains unknown and has been distorted by a hostile tradition. P. was probably born prior to AD 350; he is believed to have been from a wealthy Spanish family. His training in rhetoric indicates an education befitting his class. In connection with his decision to lead an ascetic life, he chose to be baptized as an a…

Pacianus

(130 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Berlin)
[German version] After AD 343, bishop of Barcinona (modern Barcelona), died before 393; of his life practically nothing is known. Three letters from him to the Novatian Sympronianus survive, in which he opposes Novatianism (Novatianus) (CPL 561), also a pamphlet Paraenesis sive Exhortatorius Libellus ad Paenitentiam ( Exhortation to Penitence, CPL 562) and a Sermo de Baptismo ( Sermon on Baptism, CPL 563). A Cerv(ul)us ('Stag') against the pagan celebration of the new year, mentioned by Hieronymus  (Vir. ill. 106), is lost. The author was well educated and t…

Athenagoras

(198 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Berlin)
[German version] (Ἀθηναγόρας; Athēnagóras) From Athens (2nd cent. AD). From this author surely comes an apologia bearing the inscription πρεσβεία ( presbeía) to the Emperors  Marcus Aurelius and  Commodus (CPG I 1070; [1]); whether the work mentioned at the end of this text, about the resurrection (§ 37), is identical to the one handed down in Paris. graec. 451 (CPG I 1071), is controversial. In addition to critical voices, which attribute this identification as well as the statement ‘Philosopher from Athens’ in the…

Proaeresius

(154 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Berlin)
[German version] (Προαιρέσιος/ Pro(h)airésios). Christian Sophist (cf. Second Sophistic), born c. AD 276 in Caesarea (Cappadocia) to an Armenian family; studied in Antioch [1] and Athens (Eunap. VS 10,3,3-9), where he was subsequently a celebrated teacher for many years, reflecting the continuity of the education provided there. His provenience from Asia Minor apparently attracted students particularly from that part of the Roman Empire. Constans [1] honoured him numerous times; as a Christian, he did not…

Christian Palestinian language and literature

(627 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Berlin)
[German version] A. Language Christian Palestinian is a dialect of  Aramaic, more precisely of Western Aramaic, to which belong Nabataean, Palmyrenian, Judaeo-Aramaic, Samaritan and the still extant New Western Aramaic (Maalūla linguistic enclave near Damascus, Syria). As it uses one of the older Syriac- (i.e. Estrangelō, in reality στρογγύλη; stroggýlē) related scripts, in the non-German language area it tends to be called Syro-Palestinian, although it lies closer to the Judaeo-Palestinian Aramaic of some targumim than to classical Syriac. It was evidently used in…

Papias

(159 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Berlin)
[German version] (Παπίας; Papías). Bishop or congregational leader in his home town of Hierapolis [1]. In around AD 125/130, he wrote an 'Exegesis of the oracles of the Lord in five books' (Λογίων κυριακῶν ἐξηγήσεως συγγράμματα πέντε), of which only fragments remain. The information contained in the foreword on the authors of the NT (Eus. HE 3,39,15f.) is significant but controversial. However, P. preferred the oral Jesus tradition; according to Eirenaeus [2] (different in Eusebius [7]), he was a student of Iohannes [1] and a ‘ companion’ (ἑταῖρος) of Polycarpus (Iren. Adversus h…

Polycarpus of Smyrna

(540 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Berlin)
(Πολύκαρπος/ Polýkarpos). [German version] I. Life P. was one of the most important figures among the second generation of Christian teachers, who still had contact with the members of the first, 'apostolic' generation (Eirenaeus [2] according to Eus. HE 5,20,6). He is described as bishop of Smyrna in the correspondence of Ignatius [1] (Ignatius, Epistula ad Magnesios 15), while another letter is addressed to bishop P. himself ( Epistula ad Polycarpum). He was evidently regarded not only as a representative of the congregations of Asia Minor, but also as a guardia…

Sozomenus

(363 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Berlin)
[German version] Salamanes Hermeias (Σῳζομενός/ Sōizomenós, Σαλαμάνης Ἑρμείας/ Salamánēs Hermeías), probably born in Bethelea near Gaza (possibly modern Bait Lāhiyā) into a well-to-do Christian family (cf. Phot. Cod. 30; Sozom. Hist. eccl. 5,15,14). The dates of his birth and death cannot be determined. The Palestinian and partially monastic context of his youth (Monasticism) characterizes his Ἐκκλησιαστικὴ ἱστορία/ Ekklēsiastikḕ Historía or 'History of the Church' (= HC; Sozom. Hist. eccl. 1,1,19), which was written between AD 439 and 450. After 425, …

Barnabas

(131 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Heidelberg)
[English version] Der aus Zypern stammende, begüterte Levit B. gehörte zeitweilig zum engsten Mitarbeiterkreis des Paulus und vorher zu den führenden Köpfen der antiochenischen Gemeinde. Nach einer gemeinsamen Missionszeit in Zypern und Galatien mit Paulus kam es zu einem schweren Konflikt zw. beiden, als B. mit anderen in Antiocheia (etwa 48 n.Chr.) die Tischgemeinschaft zw. Juden- und Heidenchristen aufkündigte (Gal 2,11-16). Ob er dann nach Ägypten gegangen ist, wie einzelne Traditionen zu wiss…

Doketai

(359 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Heidelberg)
[English version] (δοκηταί). Mit diesem Sammelbegriff oder τῶν ... δοκιτῶν αἵρεσις ( tōn ... dokitṓn haíresis, Theod. epist. 82,1) bezeichnen ant. christl. Theologen seit der Mitte des 5. Jh. ebenso wie die neuzeitliche Forschung verschiedene Positionen, die (jedenfalls in der Perspektive ihrer Kritiker) die reale Menschheit Jesu Christi in Zweifel ziehen oder sogar leugnen und einen “Scheinleib” behaupten. Gegner des Ignatios von Antiocheia behaupteten z.B., Christus habe nur zum Schein gelitten (τὸ δοκεῖν, e…

Fortunat(ian)us

(125 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Heidelberg)
[English version] Der Afrikaner F. amtierte wohl von 342-368/370 als Bischof von Aquileia, nach Hieronymus schrieb er unter Constantius [2] II. (337-361) einen Evangelienkomm. Titulis ordinatis brevi sermone rusticoque (Hier. vir. ill. 97,1). Vielleicht hieraus sind drei kleine Fr. erh. geblieben (CPL 104); Hieronymus benutzte das Werk für seinen eigenen Matthäus-Komm. (praef.: PL 26,200 und epist. 10,3). F. nahm 345 Athanasios in Aquileia auf, soll dann aber Liberius von Rom zur Nachgiebigkeit gegenüber dem homöischen Rei…

Cyprianus

(966 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Heidelberg)
[English version] [1] C. Gallus Heptateuchdichter s. Heptateuchdichter Markschies, Christoph (Heidelberg) [2] C. Thascius Caecili(an)us Theologe, Bf. von Karthago 248/9 [English version] A. Biographie Caecilius Cyprianus qui et Thascius (so der überlieferte Name; er enthält das ursprüngliche punische Cogn. Thascius C. und das nach dem Taufpaten Caecilianus - so Pontius, vita 4 - bzw. Caecilius - so Hier. vir. ill. 67 - gewählte neue christl. Cogn. [1. 110, Anm. 1]) stammte aus einem reichen Elternhaus. Vor seiner Bekehrung…

Apostelväter

(178 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Heidelberg)
[English version] Nach J. B. Cotelier, auf den der Begriff zurückgeht, gehören dazu Schriften von drei angeblichen Paulusschülern: 1. der Barnabasbrief (Gal 2,1; 1 Kor 9,6), 2. zwei Briefe, die Clemens von Rom (Phil 4,3) zugeschrieben werden, 3. der ›Hirt des Hermas‹ (Röm 16,4) sowie Werke zweier mutmaßlicher Johannesschüler: 4. sieben Briefe des Bischofs Ignatius von Antiochien; 5. ein Brief und weitere Überlieferungen Polykarps von Smyrna. Heute ist es üblich, dazu noch hinzuzunehmen 6. die Frag…

Pektoriosinschrift

(194 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Heidelberg)
[English version] Inschr. (IG XIV 2525 = SEG 29, 825 = [1]) auf einer Marmorplatte, die 1839 in Augustodunum/ Autun aufgefunden wurde. Sie besteht aus drei elegischen Distichen (V. 1-6) und fünf Hexametern (V. 7-11). Es handelt sich - neben der Aberkiosinschr. - um eines der bekanntesten Zeugnisse der ant. christl. Epigraphie; in der gegenwärtigen Gestalt stellt sie ein Grabepigramm dar, das ein Pektorios für seine Mutter stiftete. Die ersten sechs Verse bilden das Akrostichon ΙΧΘΥΣΕ, so daß man d…

Agape

(259 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Heidelberg)
[English version] Im NT (Jud 12) wird a. auch für das “Liebesmahl” verwendet, insofern es sich um eine Veranstaltung der Bruderliebe handelt (Tert. apol. 39,16: a. entspricht dilectio). Bei Tertullian bezeichnet sie eine den ant. Kultmahlen vergleichbare, gemeinsame Gemeindemahlzeit. Da Ignatios (ca. 110 n. Chr.) die Gemeinde in Smyrna ermahnt, nicht ohne den Bischof die a. zu halten, dürfte hier noch eine gemeinsame Feier von Eucharistie und Sättigungsmahl gemeint sein, wie sie Paulus für Korinth bezeugt (1 Kor 11,20-34), die z. T. bis ins 5. Jh. ü…

Philostorgios

(178 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Heidelberg)
[English version] (Φιλοστόργιος). Der Kirchenhistoriker Ph. wurde ca. 368 n.Chr. in Borissos/Kappadokia geb. und blieb zeitlebens Laie. Seit 388 lebte er in Konstantinopolis und erweiterte seine gute Bildung auf Reisen. Wichtig für seine theologische Position wurde eine Begegnung mit seinem Landsmann Eunomios, dessen Neuarianismus er theologisch folgte (Arianismus B.3.; den Begriff “anhomöisch” lehnte er ab [3. 65,11-14 u.ö.]). Fr. seiner Gesch. der arianischen Kontroverse finden sich v.a. in der Passio des Artemius [2] [1. 169y/172] und bei Photios [2]. Das Wer…

Collectio Avellana

(118 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Heidelberg)
[English version] Zwischen 556 und 561 wurde in Rom von privater Hand eine Sammlung von 243 Papst- und Kaiserbriefen, kaiserlichen Edikten und Reskripten, Beamtenberichten, Synodalabschieden und Glaubensformeln (Inventar mit Nachweisen [1. 274-281]) angelegt. Ihr Name leitet sich von einer früher im umbrischen Kloster S. Croce di Fonte Avellana befindlichen Handschrift her; sie wird h. in Rom aufbewahrt (Vat. lat. 4916). Das Werk geht auf ein (verlorenes) Dokument zurück, das ein offiziöses Produk…

Meletios von Antiocheia

(520 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Heidelberg)
[English version] stammte aus einer vermögenden Familie aus der Melitene/Armenia Minor (Greg. Nyss. in Meletium, p. 444 Spira; Philostorgios, Hist. eccl. 5,5 = GCS 69,11 Bidez/Winkelmann), genoß eine sorgfältige Ausbildung und lebte dann offenbar als Asket. Zum Nachfolger des abgesetzten Homöusianers Eustathios [6], des Bischofs von Sebaste, gewählt, vertrat er seit 357 n.Chr. eine Theologie in der Trad. des Eusebios [7] von Kaisareia und unterstützte die Kirchenpolitik von dessen Nachfolger Akaki…

Heraklas

(188 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Heidelberg)
[English version] Vor seiner Bekehrung zum christl. Glauben besuchte H. mit seinem Bruder Plutarchos, der später den Märtyrertod starb, zunächst den Unterricht des platon. Philosophen Ammonios [9] Sakkas (Eus. HE 6,19,13), traf dort nach fünfjährigem Unterricht auf Origenes als Mitstudenten und besuchte dann dessen Unterricht in Alexandreia (Eus. HE 6,3,2). Zu einem bestimmten Zeitpunkt übertrug Origenes H. die Anfänger unter seinen Schülern (Eus. HE 6,15). H. galt selbst als gefeierter Lehrer (Eus. HE 6,31,2) und gehörte offenbar zu den Presbytern, die für d…

Apollonius

(148 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Heidelberg)
[English version] Ein röm. Märtyrer A. ist gemäß der ältesten Überlieferung nach dem Prozeß vor dem stadtröm. Prätorianerpräfekten Tigidius Perennis 184/185 enthauptet worden. Die Quellen bieten ein unterschiedliches Bild: Nach Eusebios, der vermutlich die griech. Akten einsehen konnte, wird A. von seinem Diener denunziert und nach einem Auftritt vor dem Senat hingerichtet (Eus. HE 5,21,2-5). Hieronymus (Vir. ill. 42,1 und Ep. 70,4) bezeichnet ihn als Senator. Die griech. überlieferte Märtyrerakte…

Barnabasbrief

(190 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Heidelberg)
[English version] Der Verf. des als Brief gerahmten Traktates (CPG I 1050), der zu den sog. Apostelvätern zählt, nennt sich selbst nicht. Die Hss. sowie christl. Theologen des 2./3.Jh. wie Clemens und Origenes (der den Brief als καθολικὴ ἐπιστολή einschätzt: c. Cels. 1,63) geben als Autor den Paulusbegleiter Barnabas an. Der erste Teil (Kap. 2-16) legt die hl. Schrift (= das AT) auf Gott, Christus und das neue Gottesvolk aus; der zweite (17-20) bietet eine “Zwei-Wege-Lehre” und stellt die Christen…

Christlich-palästinische Sprache und Literatur

(586 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Heidelberg)
[English version] A. Sprache Das Christl.-Palästinische ist ein Dial. des Aramäischen, genauer des Westaramäischen, zu dem auch das Nabatäische, Palmyrenische, Jüdisch-Aramäische, Samaritanische und das bis h. gesprochene Neuwestaramäische (Sprachinsel Maalūla bei Damaskus/Syrien) gehören. Da er sich einer der älteren syr. (d.h. Estrangelō, eigentlich στρογγύλη) verwandten Schrift bedient, wird er im nichtdeutschen Sprachraum eher Syro-Palästinisch genannt, obwohl er dem jüdisch-palästin. Aramäisc…

Pacianus

(133 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Heidelberg)
[English version] Nach 343 Bischof von Barcinona (h. Barcelona), starb vor 393; aus seinem Leben ist praktisch nichts bekannt. Von ihm sind drei Briefe an den Novatianer Sympronianus erh., in denen er gegen den Novatianismus (Novatianus) Stellung nimmt (CPL 561), ferner ein Büchlein Paraenesis sive exhortatorius libellus ad paenitentiam (‘Aufforderung zur Buße, CPL 562) und ein Sermo de baptismo (‘Predigt über die Taufe, CPL 563). Ein Cerv(ul)us (‘Hirsch) gegen das pagane Neujahrsfest, den Hieronymus erwähnt (vir. ill. 106), ist verloren. Der Autor verfügt übe…

Athenagoras

(184 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Heidelberg)
[English version] von Athen (2.Jh. n.Chr.). Von diesem Autor stammt sicher eine mit πρεσβεία ( presbeía) überschriebene Apologie an die Kaiser Marcus Aurelius und Commodus (CPG I 1070; [1]); ob die am Ende dieses Textes angekündigte Schrift über die Auferstehung (§ 37) mit der in Paris. graec. 451 überlieferten (CPG I 1071) identisch ist, ist umstritten. Neben kritischen Voten, die diese Identifikation ebenso dem Kopisten zuschreiben wie die Angabe “Philosoph aus Athen” im Parisinus (Schoedel), finden sich auch Verteidiger der Authentizität (Barnard). Die Apologie muß zw. 17…

Prohairesios

(148 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Heidelberg)
[English version] (Προαιρέσιος). Christlicher Sophist (vgl. Zweite Sophistik), wurde ca. 276 n. Chr. in Kaisareia (Kappadokien) als Sohn einer armen. Familie geb. und studierte in Antiocheia [1] bzw. Athen (Eun. vit. soph. 10,3,3-9), wo er dann lange Zeit als gefeierter Lehrer arbeitete und die Kontinuität der dortigen Ausbildung repräsentierte. Offenbar zog er wegen seiner kleinasiat. Herkunft v. a. auch Studenten aus dieser Region des Römischen Reiches an. Durch Constans [1] wurde er mehrfach ge…

Priscillianus, Priscillianismus

(1,072 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Heidelberg)
Spätant. spanischer Asket und christl. Theologe; Bezeichnung für die von ihm begründete asketische Bewegung. [English version] I. Leben des Priscillianus und Geschichte des Priscillianismus Weite Teile der Biographie des P. bleiben im dunkeln und werden durch die gegnerische Überl. verzeichnet. Geboren wurde P. wahrscheinlich vor 350 n. Chr.; er stammte verm. aus einer vermögenden Familie Spaniens. Seine rhet. Bildung deutet auf eine standesgemäße Erziehung. Im Zusammenhang mit seiner Zuwendung zum asketischen Leben li…

Papias

(145 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Heidelberg)
[English version] (Παπίας). Bischof oder Gemeindeleiter in seiner Heimatstadt Hierapolis [1], schrieb um 125/130 n.Chr. eine ‘auslegende Darstellung der Herrenüberlieferung in fünf Büchern (Λογίων κυριακῶν ἐξηγήσεως συγγράμματα πέντε), von der nur Fr. erh. sind. Wichtig, aber umstritten sind die histor. Informationen über die Autoren des NT aus dem Vorwort (Eus. HE 3,39,15f.). Allerdings bevorzugte P. die mündliche Jesus-Überl.; nach Eirenaios [2] (anders Eusebios [7]) war er ein Hörer des Iohanne…

Carmen contra paganos

(111 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Heidelberg)
[English version] Der Pariser Prudentius-Cod. Lat. 8084 überliefert fol. 156r-158v 122 V. eines anon. Schmähgedichtes (CPL 1431), das sich gegen einen praefectus ( urbis oder praetorio orientis), vermutlich V. Nicomachus Flavianus d.Ä., vielleicht aber auch Vettius Agorius Praetextatus richtet. Der Text ist nicht nur eine christl. Reaktion auf die pagane röm. Renaissance unter Symmachus, sondern auch Zeugnis christl. Vergilrezeption. Das C. gehört zur Gattung apologetischer Dichtungen und gibt interessante Hinweise auf die pagane röm. Religiosität der Spätant. Markschies…

Hermas, Hermae Pastor

(573 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Heidelberg)
[English version] Bei dem Werk ‘Der Hirt des H. (griech. nur Ποιμήν/ Poimḗn, lat. Liber pastoris nuntii paenitentiae bzw. Liber Hermae prophetae) handelt es sich um eine christl. prophetische Schrift, mit Stilmerkmalen einer Apokalypse, ohne jedoch diesem Genre ganz zu entsprechen. Sie wird h. zu den Apostolischen Vätern (Apostelväter) gezählt. Der Titel ‘Hirt (Ποιμήν) für das Gesamtwerk erscheint bereits im Canon Muratori, einem westl. Kanonverzeichnis (eher Ende 2. Jh. als 4. Jh.: Z. 74); der Titel deckt allerdings nur den zweiten Teil des Werkes (visio…

Predigt

(1,494 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Heidelberg)
[English version] I. Allgemeines, Begriff und Ursprünge Als P. bezeichnet man diejenige Rede (griech. ὁμιλία/ homilía, lat. sermo), die seit dem 2. Jh. im Kontext eines ant. christl. Gottesdienstes (Kult, Kultus IV.) im Anschluß an Lesungen aus den Heiligen Schriften (Bibel) vorgetragen wurde. Gegenstand der P. waren entweder Themen der Lesungen oder das aktuelle Fest bzw. die Festzeit und schließlich zunehmend auch Heilige (B.); dabei wurden die Texte mit Hilfe allg. eingeführter Auslegungsmethoden (z. B. der A…

Antiochenische Schule

(211 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Heidelberg)
[English version] Mit diesem modernen Namen bezeichnet man eine Gruppe von Theologen, die als Exegeten hervorgetreten sind. Ein wirklicher Schulzusammenhang ist erst unter Theologen nachweisbar, die sich von ca. 350 bis ca. 430 zeitweilig in Antiochia aufhielten, so Diodor von Tarsus, seine Schüler Theodor von Mopsuestia, Johannes Chrysostomos und deren (?) Schüler Theodoret von Kyrrhos. Die Spezifika der Schule werden deutlich in ihren exegetischen Arbeiten, so in den methodischen Prologen eines …

Ruricius von Limoges

(152 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Heidelberg)
[English version] Christl. Bischof und Autor; war zunächst verheiratet (Hochzeitslied: Sidon. carm. 11), entschloß sich unter Einfluß des Faustus [3] Reiensis 477 zum asketischen Leben und wurde schließlich 485 Bischof. Er starb kurz nach 507. Ein Epitaph auf ihn und seinen Nachfolger, den Enkel R. II., findet sich bei Venantius Fortunatus (carm. 4,5). Erh. sind 2 B. mit 18 bzw. 64 (65) Briefen, dazu 14 Briefe an R. Unter diesen Texten finden sich v. a. Empfehlungsschreiben und bischöfliche “Allta…

Apostelbriefe

(259 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Heidelberg)
[English version] Mit A. bezeichnet man ant. christl. “Briefe”, die einem ἀπόστολος zugeschrieben wurden: a) solche, die in den ersten vier Jahrhunderten in den Kanon des Neuen Testamentes aufgenommen wurden, und b) solche, die zu den Apokryphen zählen: So 1. der pseudo-paulinische Laodicenerbrief, der sich in vielen lat. Bibelhss. findet, 2. der Briefwechsel zwischen den Korinthern und Paulus, 3. der Briefwechsel zwischen Seneca und Paulus 4. der Ps.-Titusbrief ›Über den Stand der Keuschheit‹, 5. die Epistula Petri, ferner, aus der Briefüberlieferung der gnostische…

Polykarpos von Smyrna

(471 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Heidelberg)
(Πολύκαρπος). [English version] I. Leben P. gehört zu den wichtigsten Gestalten der zweiten Generation christl. Lehrer, die noch Kontakt zu den Personen der ersten, “apostolischen” hatten (Eirenaios [2] nach Eus. HE 5,20,6). In den Briefen des Ignatios [1] wird er als “Bischof von Smyrna” bezeichnet (Ignatios, Epistula ad Magnesios 15), ein weiterer Brief ist an den Bischof P. selbst adressiert ( Epistula ad Polycarpum). Offenbar galt er nicht nur als Repräsentant der kleinasiat. Gemeinden, sondern auch als Hüter der unverfälschten apostolischen Trad. Als s…

Abgarlegende

(314 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Heidelberg)
[English version] Die A. ist ein pseudepigrapher Briefwechsel zw. Jesus von Nazareth und dem König Abgar V. Ukkāmā (= dem Schwarzen; Tac. ann. 12,12,2) von Edessa, der zw. 4 v. und 50 n. Chr. das Königreich von Osroene regierte. Die älteste Fassung bei Eusebios, der die Briefe dem edessenischen Archiv entnommen und aus dem Syr. übersetzt haben will (h.e. 1,13,6-21). Danach hat A. von den Heilungen Jesu gehört und lädt ihn nach Edessa ein, um von ihm geheilt zu werden. Jesus preist in seiner Antwor…

Pachomios

(247 words)

Author(s): Markschies, Christoph (Heidelberg)
[English version] (Παχώμιος), der 292 n.Chr. wohl in Latopolis/Esna geb. wurde und 346 an der Pest starb, gilt als Begründer des koinobitischen Mönchtums in Äg. und als Verf. der ersten Mönchsregel; koinóbion (im Sinne von koinōnía, “Gemeinschaft”) heißt die von ihm gegr. pachomianische Mönchsgemeinschaft durchgängig in der Vita prima [2. 24]. P. wurde in einer paganen ägypt. Familie geb. und konvertierte anläßlich seiner Einschreibung in die Armee mit etwa zwanzig J. zum Christentum. Nach seiner Rückkehr in das unterägypt. Chenoboskion (“Gän…

Platonismus

(4,347 words)

Author(s): Halfwassen, Jens | Markschies, Christoph
[English Version] I. Philosophisch 1.Allgemeiner Charakter Platos Denken war von beispielloser, von keinem anderen Philosophen je erreichter Wirkungsmacht. Plato war der erste Philosoph, der (um 385 v.Chr.) mit der Akademie (: I.) im institutionellen Sinne eine Schule gegründet und damit bewußt eine philos. Tradition gestiftet hat. Aus seiner Schriftkritik ergibt sich zudem, daß Plato der mündlichen Tradierung seines Denkens durch seine Schüler Vorrang einräumte vor seinen Dialogen, die v.a. Werbesc…
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