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[English version] (ca. 50 v. Chr. bis 30 n. Chr.). Bedeutender Vertreter des pharisäischen Judentums (Pharisaioi). Š. zählt in der rabbinischen Traditionskette von der Weitergabe der Mose-Tora (Pentateuch) zu den sog. “fünf Paaren” ( zugot; vgl. mAvot 1,15); sein Gegenpart ist Hillel, dem er in der rabbinischen Literatur klischeehaft gegenübergestellt wird. Während Hillel in Gesetzesfragen eher mild entschieden habe, sei Š. durch seine Strenge und Rigorosität zu charakterisieren (vgl. bShab 31a). Die rabbinische Trad. sieht i…

[English version] (hebr./aram., wörtlich “Große Weltordnung”, im Gegensatz zu dem weniger umfangreichen Werk Seder ôlām zuṭâ, “Kleine Weltordnung”). Midraschwerk, das chronographisch die Daten von der Erschaffung der Welt bis zum Bar-Kochba-Aufstand (132-135 n. Chr.; Bar Kochba) zusammenstellt. Auffälligerweise umfaßt die persische Zeit nur 34 J.; die Daten von Alexandros [4] d.Gr. bis zu Bar Kochba werden zudem nur summarisch wiedergegeben. Das Werk, das dem rabbinischen Gelehrten Jose ben Ḫalaftâ (ca. 160 n…

[English version] (hebr. sandālfōn). Name eines der bedeutendsten Engel der rabbinischen Angelologie. S.s Größe erstreckt sich von der Erde bis in die himmlische Welt und er überragt seine Engelsgefährten um 500 J., wobei er “für seinen Schöpfer Kränze windet” (bHag 13b mit der Auslegung zu Ez 1,15; PesR 20 [97a]). Verwandte Überl. setzten diese Kränze mit den Gebeten Israels gleich, die S. Gott darbringt (Bet ha-Midrasch 2,26 Jellinek). Sein Name leitet sich mit großer Wahrscheinlichkeit ab von griech. συνάδελφος/ synádelphos, “Mitbruder” (entweder der Engelsgemeinschaft …

[English version] (auch Sanbation oder Sabbation; griech. Σαββατικός, Ios. bell. Iud. 7,5). Mythischer Fluß, hinter den die zehn Stämme Israels (Juda und Israel) durch den Assyrerkönig Salmanassar exiliert worden sein sollen. Dieser Fluß hatte der jüd. Legende zufolge die wunderbare Eigenschaft, am Sabbat zu ruhen, während er an allen anderen Tagen eine so starke Strömung hatte, daß er Steine schleuderte (u. a. BerR 11,5; vgl. bereits Plin. nat. 31,24). Genau umgekehrt beschreibt Iosephos [4] Flavios…

[English version] (von aram. tenâ = hebr. šānāh, “wiederholen, lehren, lernen”, vgl. auch den t.t. Mišna). Nach der traditionellen Periodisierung der rabbinischen Literatur Bezeichnung derjenigen rabbinischen Lehrer, die in der Zeit der Entstehung der Mischna, also zw. Hillel und Šammaj (etwa zu Beginn der christl. Zeitrechnung), bis zu Jehuda ha-Nasi und seinen Söhnen (Anf. 3. Jh. n. Chr.) wirkten. Nach Josef ibn Aqnin, einem Schüler des Maimonides (gest. 1204), setzt die Epoche der T. schon mit Simon dem Ger…

[English version] (wörtl. “Einwohnung [Gottes]” von hebr. šāḵan, “wohnen”). Rabbinische Bezeichnung für die Gegenwart Gottes in der Welt; lehnt sich begrifflich an die Beschreibung der Einwohnung Gottes im Heiligtum (Jes 8,18; Ez 43,7-9) bzw. bei seinem Volke (Ex 29,45) an (vgl. auch die entsprechende Rezeption der Vorstellung in der johanneischen Inkarnationstheologie, Jo 1,14). Die Vorstellung der Š. dient zur Beschreibung der Immanenz des eigentlich transzendenten Gottes. Ausgehend von der Idee der …

[English version] (hebr. sārāf, Pl. serāfîm, vom Verb srf, “brennen”; griech. σεραφιν, lat. seraphin). At. Bezeichnung der Kobra-Schlange (vgl. den ägypt. Uräus). Neben der natürlichen von diesem Tier ausgehenden Bedrohung (Dtn 8,15; Nm 21,9) spielt in der at. Überl. bes. der apotropäische Aspekt eine Rolle: Ein an einer Stange befestigter S. wehrt auch die Schlangenplage im Lager der Israeliten ab (Nm 21,7-10). Zahlreiche Siegelfunde v. a. ab dem 8. Jh. v. Chr. zeigen den ägypt. Ursprung der Vorstellung. S.…

[English version] (“Studium, Lehre”, von hebr. lamad, “lernen”). Bedeutendstes Werk der rabbinischen Literatur, bestehend aus a) der Mischna, der ältesten autoritativen Gesetzessammlung des rabbin. Judentums (ca. 200 n. Chr.) und b) der Gemara, d. h. Auslegungen und Diskussionen zum Stoff der Mischna. Da es in rabbinischer Zeit zwei Zentren jüdischer Gelehrsamkeit gab, nämlich Palaestina und Babylonien (Sura, Pumbedita), entstanden zwei verschiedene Talmudim: der Palaestinische (= Jerusalemer; im wese…

[English version] (Ζιών oder Σιών, fem.; lat. Zion, mask., fem. oder ntr.). Der hebr. Eigenname Z. bezeichnete urspr. die Zitadelle der von David [1] eroberten Jebusiterstadt Jerusalem, die auf dem karstigen Süd-Ost-Hügel oberhalb der Gihonquelle lag. Der hebr. Text erklärt die Wendung “Festung Z.” ( meṣudat ṣijjōn) durch “Davids Stadt” (2 Sam 5,7; vgl. 1 Kg 8,1; zur Unterscheidung von der übrigen Stadt vgl. 2 Sam 6,10; 6,12; 6,16). Nach der Ausdehnung Jerusalems unter Salomo konnte der Name auch für den Tempelberg (Ps 2,6; Jes 2,2 f.) bzw.…

[English version] (Θεωδοτίων; nach Epiphanios, de mensuris et ponderibus 17; 2. Jh. n. Chr.), altkirchlicher Auffassung zufolge ein Proselyt aus Ephesos (Iren. adversus haereses 3,21). Th. verfertigte (im Gegensatz zu Aquila [3] und Symmachos [2]) keine neue griech. Übers. des AT, sondern revidierte eine griech. Übers. nach dem hebr. Text. Ob seine Vorlage mit der Septuaginta identisch ist, ist umstritten, da sich “theodotionische” Lesarten auch in Texten finden, die zeitlich vor Th. liegen. [1] identifizierte Th. mit dem Autor der im 1. Jh. n. Chr. entstandenen kaige- oder…

[English version] (hebr. Sammāel). Negative Engelsgestalt in der jüd. Trad., häufig mit dem Satan identifiziert. S. wird erstmals in äthHen 6 erwähnt, wo er einer Gruppe von Engeln angehört, die gegen Gott rebelliert (vgl. den Namen Σαμμανή/ Sammanḗ bzw. Σαμιήλ/ Samiḗl der griech. Version). Nach griechBar 4,9 pflanzte er den Weinstock, der den Fall Adams veranlaßte; deshalb wurde S. verflucht und zum Satan. In der ‘Himmelfahrt des Jesaja ist S. identisch mit der Gestalt Beliars (4,11). Die rabbinische Literatur kennt S. in Schlangenge…

[English version] (hebr. Malakh ha-mawet). Gestalt der rabbinischen Angelologie, kann mit Sammael oder Satan identifiziert werden (z. B. bBB 16a). Der T., von Gott über Leben und Tod eingesetzt, steht bei einem Sterbenden. Öffnet dieser vor Schreck den Mund, so läßt er aus seinem Schwert einen Tropfen Galle in dessen Mund fallen, woraufhin der Tod eintritt (bAZ 20b). Bis zur Sünde des Goldenen Kalbs (Ex 32,1-24) war der T. nur für die Völker der Welt bestimmt, denn die Annahme durch die Tora bedeute…

[English version] (Σοφία Σιραχ). Das apokryphe Buch ‘Jesus S. (hebr. Ben Sîrâ), eines der bedeutendsten Werke der Weisheitsliteratur, wurde von einem Jerusalemer jüd. Schriftgelehrten S. um 190 v. Chr. auf Hebräisch verfaßt und später von seinem Enkel ins Griech. übersetzt (vgl. Vorrede). Die ältesten hebr. Fr. wurden in Qumran und Masada gefunden; zwei Drittel des hebr. Textes entdeckte man in Hss. der Kairoer Geniza. Obwohl von der jüd. Trad. nicht in den Kanon aufgenommen, wird S. im Talmud (Rabbinische Literatur) wie ein kanonisches B. zitiert. S. besteht aus einzelnen Weis…

[English version] (hebr. für ‘Leben Jesu’), eine jüd. volkstümliche Pseudohistorie des Lebens Jesu (A.1.), das dessen Geburt, Leben und Tod in satirisch-polemischer Art beschreibt. Die ma. Kompilation, die in zahlreichen unterschiedlichen Versionen in mehreren Sprachen (u. a. hebr., jiddisch, judeo-arab. und judeo-persisch) im Umlauf war und deren Wurzeln wohl schon auf talmudische Überl. zurückgehen (vgl. z. B. bSot 47a; bSan 43a; 67a; 107b), erzählt u. a. von Jesu schmachvoller Herkunft, da sein…

[English version] (hebr. targûm, “Übersetzung”). Seit tannaitischer Zeit (ca. 2. Jh. n. Chr.) Bezeichnung für die aram. Übers. der hebr. Bibel. Zum Pentateuch existieren mehrere T.-Versionen: a) Der T. Onqelos, dem wohl ein palaestinischer Text (ca. E. 1./Anf. 2. Jh. n. Chr.) zugrunde liegt und der verm. zw. dem 3. und 5. Jh. n. Chr. in Babylonien redigiert wurde, gibt den hebr. Text vorwiegend wörtlich wieder; b) T. Neofiti, T. Pseudo-Jonathan (= T. Jeruschalmi I) und der nur zu einzelnen Versen e…

Part of 14 Tobit 14.6.1 IntroductionThe later texts of the Tobit tradition include an Aramaic version. This version draws for the most part on the long text in the book of Tobit (GII; represented by LXXS, 14.4, and the Vetus Latina, 14.8). It places a strong emphasis on tithing.1 14.6.2 ManuscriptsThe entire text is attested in Ms. 2339 of the Bodleian Library as the fifth text in a Midrashim collection (ABodl2339). The manuscript itself traces back to the fifteenth century (or the late fourteenth century). It is written in an oriental, Sephardic script, and is of…

Part of 14 TobitThe five texts of the Tobit story that survive as fragments include four versions in Aramaic and one version in Hebrew (14.2). This discovery has shed new light on the Tobit story, in terms of contents, its text, and its historical context, as its close relation to the Aramaic literature from the Second Temple period (for example, on such topics as demonology, endogamy, eschatology, etc.) became apparent when compared with the other Dead Sea Scrolls. As the text form dovetails, for the most part, with the Greek long text (GII; 14.4), the Qumran finds provide a crucial a…

Part of 1 Overview Articles - 1.3 Primary Translations 1.3.3.1 Introduction, Definition, and TerminologyThe term Targum means, if taken literally, “translation.” In biblical studies, the term refers to the Aramaic translations of the individual books of the Hebrew Bible, which originated in the rabbinic period (or in the early Middle Ages).1 It can also be used in a wider sense of the word for the fragmentary Aramaic translations of Leviticus and Job as they were found at Qumran as well as for the Aramaic translation of the Samaritan Pentateuch.The term תַּרְגּוּם is based on the Hebrew root ת…

Part of 14 Tobit 14.3.1 IntroductionThe medieval Tobit tradition comprises five different Hebrew texts in total. They have been available in the text edition published by Weeks, Gathercole, and Stuckenbruck (here abbreviated as WGS) since 2004; this edition thus constitutes a milestone in Tobit research.1The texts included therein are as follows: 1. “Hebraeus Muenster” (Constantinople 1516, in the WGS edition “H3”); 2. “Hebraeus Fagius” (Constantinople 1519, in the WGS edition “H4”); 3. “Hebraeus Londini” (BL Add. 11639, in the WGS edition “H5”); 4. Hebraeus Gaster (Or. 99…

Part of 14 TobitThe five manuscripts of the Tobit story that survived as fragments in the Qumran library include one version in the Hebrew language. In connection with the textual evidence in the Aramaic language (14.5), this find has shed new light on the Tobit story, both in terms of contents, as well as of its textual and historical context, as its close relation to Aramaic literature from the Second Temple period (cf. themes of demonology, endogamy, eschatology, etc.) became apparent when compa…

[English Version] I. Aramäische Targumim Mit Targumtexten beschäftigte sich zunächst die jüd. Exegese (: VIII.,2.; Bibelübersetzungen: I.,4.) bzw. der christl. Humanismus. Im ausgehenden 18.Jh. setzte dann im Zuge der Wissenschaft des Judentums die wiss. Erforschung der Targumlit. ein (Berliner; Ginsburger). Entscheidende Impulse erhielt die T. zudem durch die Entdeckungen der Texte aus der Kairoer Geniza (: II.; Kahle, Klein), die Entdeckung des Targum Neofiti 1956 (Díez Macho), die Publikation bis…

[German Version] I. Aramaic Targumim Targum texts first attracted the attention of Jewish exegesis (VIII, 2; Bible translations: I, 4) and of Christian Humanism. In the late 18th century, the scholarly study of Targum literature then began in the wake of the Wissenschaft des Judentums (Berliner; Ginsburger). Targum research also received decisive impulses from the discoveries of the texts from the Cairo Geniza (II; Kahle, Klein), the discovery of the Targum Neofiti in 1956 (Díez Macho), the publication of hitherto unknown Yemenite manuscripts (Sperber), as well as …

[German Version] This Jewish work, from the period before the destruction of the temple in 70 ce, is extant in only four shorter fragments transmitted by various church fathers (including Justin, Epiphanius, Clement of Alexandria, Augustine, Cyprian, Gregory of Nyssa, and Tertullian). Fragment 1, the longest, contains a parable of a blind person and a lame person, intended to show that the body and the soul must be t…

[German version] The Exilarch (Aramaic rēš alūṯā, ‘Head of the diaspora’) was the leader of the Babylonian Jews and the official representative at the court of the Parthian king in the Talmudic and Gaonic periods ( c. 3rd-10th cents. AD). This institution, which claimed its origins in the House of David, was probably introduced during the administrative reforms of Vologaeses. I. (AD 51-79) [3]. The first certain details about the office date from the 3rd cent. (cf. yKil 9,4ff [32b]). The Exilarch had authority primarily in juridic…

[German version] (from Hebrew śābar, 'consider', 'verify', 'reason' ). Term for those Jewish Talmud scholars of the 6th/7th cents. AD who carried out the final editing of the Babylonian Talmud (Rabbinical literature) and copiously amplified it with more extensive chapters. The Saboraeans followed the Tannaites (late 1st - early 3rd cents. AD) and the Amoraim (3rd-5th cents. AD). Ego, Beate (Osnabrück) Bibliography G. Stemberger, Einleitung in Talmud und Midrasch, 81992, 205-207.

[German version] Literally: ‘my Lords’. The plural suffix presumably recurs as an adjustment to the Hebrew word for God, Elohim, which is grammatically a plural form. When early Judaism tabooed the divine name Yahweh for fear of an abuse of its utterance (cf. i.a. Ex 20.7), adonai became a substitute. Thus, the Septuagint expresses the name ‘Yahweh’ as the divine predicate ‘Lord’ (κύριος; kýrios). The  Masoretes ( c. 7th-9th cents. AD), who initially set the text of the Hebrew Bible which only consisted of consonants and supplied its vowels, vocalized the tetra…

[German version] The title ethnarchos was given by the Romans to both Hyrcanus II (63-40 BC) and the son of Herod, Archelaus (4 BC-AD 6) (Hyrcanus II by Caesar 47 BC cf. Jos. Ant. Iud. 14,192ff.; Archelaus by Augustus after Herod's death, cf. Jos. Ant. Iud. 17,317). Formal expression was thus given to the designated person's rule over the Jewish people, while at the same time deliberately avoiding the title of king (cf. Jos. Ant. Iud. 20,244). The head of the Jewish community in Alexandria, who is s…

[German version] The K. are a group within Judaism which emerged in the 2nd half of the 8th cent. AD under the leadership of Anan, a member of the exilarch family ( Exilarch), who was passed over when the exilarch was appointed in the year 767. The basis of Karaite beliefs (the K. being split up into subgroups) is the recognition of the Jewish Bible (Hebrew miqra) as the only foundation of the faith (hence, the term K. which is derived from Hebr. qaraʾim or bne/ baʿale-ha-miqra). In so doing, the K. called into question the validity of the tradition of Rabbinic Judaism, the so-c…

[German version] According to the Chronistic History ( Bible), the Levites - clearly distinguished from the priests - form a type of clerus minor who are entrusted with the supervision of the Temple courtyards, provision rooms with cult equipment, sacrifices and offerings as well as being active as singers, musicians and gatekeepers and assisting the priests in the sacrificial service. Various genealogies document internal disputes and rivalries. The details of the history of the Levites can be clarified only with dif…

[German version] The term Amoraim (from Hebr. amar, ‘to say, comment’) describes in the traditional periodization those rabbinic teachers who worked both in Palestine and Babylon in the period from the finalization of the Mishna ( c. AD 200) to the time when the Babylonian Talmud was essentially completed, except for a few final revisions ( c. AD 500). They commented on the interpretations of the early  Tannaites, who have more authority in tradition. Ego, Beate (Osnabrück) Bibliography G. Stemberger, Einleitung in Talmud und Midrasch, 81992.

[German version] Since the Hebrew alphabet is a consonantal alphabet and thus does not write any vowels, written words can often be pronounced and interpreted in various ways. In order to solve this problem, individual consonant letters were used also as vowel letters ( matres lectionis) from early on (so called plene writing; cf. Aramaic documents from as early as the 9th century BC or the Shiloah inscription from the 7th century BC). Furthermore, in order to secure the pronunciation of the holy text definitively, the so-called Masorah (‘tradition’, from Hebrew msr, ‘to pass down’) w…

[German version] (Hebrew Malakh ha-mawet). Figure of Rabbinical angelology, can be identified with  Sammael or  Satan (e.g. bBB 16a). The angel of death, given by God the power over life and death, stands at the side of someone who is dying. If that person opens his or her mouth in fright, the angel casts a drop of gall from his sword into the open mouth, whereupon death occurs (bAZ 20b). Up until the sin of the golden calf (Ex 32,1-24), the angel was intended only for the peoples of the world, beca…

[German version] (Eliša b. Abuja). Jewish scholar of the first half of the 2nd cent. AD, in the Rabbinic literature considered a prototypical apostate and probably therefore bearing the name Aḥer (Hebrew ‘the Other’). However, Rabbinic legendary tradition attributes to him a number of very different heresies: the reference in bHag 15a, according to which he believed in the existence of two heavenly powers, seems to point to Gnostic ideas ( Gnostics); according to yHag 2,1 (77b), he is supposed to …

[German version] The term diaspora (Greek διασπορά; diasporá, ‘scattering’) refers to Israelite or rather Jewish settlements outside Palestine. The main reason for their formation was the  deportation of the population as a consequence of military conquest; but alongside that, flight for political reasons, emigration in response to economic hardships, as well as expansion of trade also played a part. Despite considerable cultural differences, the country of Israel and in particular the temple in Jerusa…

[German version] Rabbi A. ( c. AD 50-135), an important Jewish teacher in the time of  Jabne, often appears as an opponent of rabbi Yishmael in discussions on the interpretation of Scriptures. He plays a significant role in the context of early esoteric traditions (see the tale of the four who entered Paradise; bHag 14b par.). He allegedly proclaimed Bar Kochba the Messiah of Israel (‘Star of Jacob’; cf. Num 24,5), which provoked objections because of the primarily anti-apocalyptic tendency of the ea…

[German version] (Ζιών/Ziṓn or Σιών/Siṓn, fem.; Lat. Zion, masc., fem. or neutr.). The Hebrew proper noun Z. was originally the name for the citadel of the Jebusite city of Jerusalem on the southeastern karst hill above the source of the Gihon, which was conquered by David [1]. The Hebrew text explains the phrase 'Fortress of Z.' ( meṣudat ṣijjōn) as 'David's City' (2 Sam 5:7; cf. 1 Kg 8:1; for the distinction from the remainder of the city cf. 2 Sam 6:10; 6:12; 6:16). After the expansion of Jerusalem under Solomon the name could also be applied to th…

[German version] (Ιουδιθ, Iudith, Iudit). The Book of J., which has come down to us only in Greek and (dependent on it) in Latin and belongs to the Apocrypha ( Apocryphal literature), goes back to a Hebrew original. In a politically and militarily difficult situation, with the inhabitants of the mountain city of Betylia besieged by Nebuchadnezzar's commander  Holofernes, and consequently suffering from lack of water, Judith, a young, rich and pious widow, appears. After admonishing the people to tru…

[German version] the elder, of Babylonian descent, lived at the time of  Herodes [1] the Great (end 1st cent. BC/beginning 1st cent. AD); pupil of the Pharisees Shemaya and Abtalion. H. was one of the most important ‘rabbinic’ authorities from the period before the destruction of the temple of  Jerusalem (AD 70). Tradition ascribes to him the seven rules of interpretation ( Middot), strongly influenced by Greek rhetoric, as well as the introduction of the so-called prosbul: according to this a creditor could demand payment of his debt even after a sabbat…

[German version] Most often simply called ‘rabbi’ or ‘our holy rabbi’, c. AD 175-217; son and successor of Simeon ben Gamaliel [2] II, the most important of the Jewish Patriarchs, under whose rule the office was at its most powerful. He was officially acknowledged by the Romans as the representative of Judaism and in addition acted as the head of the Sanhedrin ( Bēt Dīn;  Synhedrion), being the highest authority in questions of teachings ( Ḥakham). J. had at his disposal a solid financial basis, and maintained extensive trading relations and contacts with the  Diaspora…

[German version] (Hebrew targûm, 'translation'). Name of the Aramaic translation of the Hebrew Bible since the Tannaitic Period ( c. 2nd cent. AD). Of the Pentateuch, several Targum versions exist: a) Targum Onqelos, probably based on a Palestinian text ( c. late 1st/early 2nd cents. AD) and revised in Babylonia presumably between the 3rd and the 5th cents. AD, is largely a literal translation of the Hebrew text; b) Targum Neofiti, Targum Pseudo-Jonathan (= Targum Jerushalmi I) as well as the Fragment Targum (= Targum Jerushalmi II), …

[German version] (Hebrew gāōn, ‘Eminence’, later ‘Excellency’; pl.: Gōnı̄m). Official title of the head of the Rabbinic academies in Babylonian  Sura and  Pumbedita. There the gaons functioned from the 6th cent. AD to the end of the academies in the 11th cent. as the highest teaching authorities (cf. the name of this period as the ‘Gaonic period’). The most important representatives of this office were Amram ben Sheshna (died about AD 875; author of the earliest preserved prayer book), Saadiah be…

[German version] (also Sanbation or Sabbation; Greek Σαββατικός/ Sabbatikós, Jos. BI 7,5). Mythical river, behind which the ten tribes of Israel (Judah and Israel) were said to have been exiled by the Assyrian king Salmanassar. According to Jewish legend, this river had the miraculous property of resting on the Sabbath, while on all other days its current was so strong that it hurled stones (among others, BerR 11,5; cf. already Plin. HN 31,24). Iosephus [4] Flavius describes the river, which according t…

[German version] (Hebrew šeēlōt u-tešūḇōt, literally 'questions and answers'; plural 'responses'). Rabbinical genre name; correspondence, in which one party consults the other on a difficult question of Halakha. While the Talmudic literature (Rabbinical literature) already indicates the existence of this genre (cf. bYebamot 105a), a scope more significant to responsa literature only developed in the Gaonic period (Gaon, 6th-11th cents. AD), when Jews from the widespread diaspora turned to the halak…

[German version] Legendary name of an anti-Messiah, who appears in late 7th cent. apocalyptic Midrashim (e.g. Midrash Wa-yosha, Sefer Serubbabel, Nistarot shel R. Shimon ben Joháai). The etymological source is assumed to be ‘Remulus’, symbol of Roman rulership as such. The legend holds that A., son of a marble statue, will march to Jerusalem with ten kings, defeat the true Messiah and send Israel into exile in the desert, whereupon the pagans will worship the stone that gave birth to A. as a godde…

[German version] (Hebrew sandālfōn). Name of one of the most important angels in rabbinic angelology. S.'s size spans from earth into the heavenly realm and he surmounts his angel companions by 500 years 'while making wreaths for his creator' (bHag 13b with the interpretation of Ez 1:15; PesR 20 [97a]). Related traditions identified these wreaths with the prayers of Israel that S. presents to God (Bet ha-Midrasch 2,26 Jellinek). It is highly probably that his name is derived from the Greek συνάδελφος/ synádelphos, 'fellow brother' (in the community of angels or specifically o…

[German version] [1] Greek see  Priests Ego, Beate (Osnabrück) [German version] [2] Jewish Already during the pre-Maccabean period, the High Priest (Hebr. kohen ha-gadol; Greek archiereus) was the highest religious and political authority (cf. Sir 50,1 ff.), heading a hierarchically structured priesthood comprising several thousand individuals. Holding the status of ‘eternal holiness’ (mNaz 7,1), it was his responsibility to preserve certain rules of purity with regard to marriage and dealings with the dead. During the …

[German version] ( c. 50 BC-AD 30). Significant representative of Pharisaic Judaism (Pharisaei). Š. figures in the traditional rabbinical chain from the revelation of the Torah of Moses (Pentateuch) to the 'Five Pairs' ( zugot; cf. mAvot 1,15); his counterpart is Hillel, to whom Š. is opposed in a cliché fashion in rabbinical literature: in questions of law, whereas Hillel made rather lenient decisions, Š. is characterized by strictness and rigour (cf. bShab 31a). Rabbinical tradition sees Š. as the founder of a school of scholars (Hebrew bēt-Šammai) that is likewise contrasted wi…

[German version] (Hebrew sārāf, plural serāfîm, from the verb srf, 'burn'; Greek σεραφιν/ seraphin, Latin seraphin). Old Testament term for the cobra (cf. Egyptian Uraeus). Apart from the natural threat from this animal (Dtn 8,15; Nm 21,9) an apotropaic aspect plays a particular role in the Old Testament tradition: a seraph attached to a pole repels a plague of snakes in the Israelites' camp (Nm 21,7-10) {{6-9 in AV, but not saying this}}. Finds of numerous seals, primarily from the 8th century BC, indicate th…

[German version] (Hebrew ‎‏בורכ‏‎, from Akkadian karābu, ‘to dedicate, to greet’; pl. kerubs or cherubs/ kerubim). Composite creature with a human head, body of a lion and wings symbolizing the highest power. According to Gn 3:24, kerubim served to guard the garden of Eden (cf. also Ez 28:14 and 16). Particular significance is attached to the kerubim in the Biblical tradition of the arrangement of the Temple of Solomon. In the holy of holies there are two kerubim made of olive wood and plated with gold, each 10 cubits in height. With their wings with a span each of 5 cub…

[German version] (Hebrew Sammāel). Negative angel figure in Jewish tradition, often identified with Satan. S. is mentioned for the first time in Ethiopic Henoch 6, where he is one of a group of angels that rebels against God (cf. the name Σαμμανή/ Sammanḗ or Σαμιήλ/ Samiḗl in the Greek version). According to Greek Baruch 4,9, he planted the vine that led to the fall of Adam; S. was therefore cursed and became Satan. In the 'Ascension of Isaiah', S. is identified with the figure of Beliar (4,11). Rabbinical literature represents S. in the s…