Search

[English edition] الأشعريّة فرقة عقائدية، ينتمي أصحابها إلى أبي الحسن الأشعري [انظره]، ويدعون أحياناً أشاعرة.(يحتاج تاريخ هذا المذهب إلى مزيد من الدّراسة، ويمكن اعتبار ما يرد في هذا المقال من آراء أوّليّا). 1. تاريخ النشأة في العقدين الأخيرين من حياته، تمكّن الأشعري من جمع الكثير من الطلبة حوله، وأدّى ذلك إلى تأسيس مذهب لقيت آراؤه في العقيدة معارضة من عدّة جهات. عارضها جماعة من المعتزلة وعارضتها فرق من أهل السنّة. فالحنابلة [انظره] اعتبروا الاحتجاج العقلي في العقائد من البدع المرفوضة. أمّا الماتريدية [انظره]، وهم من المحتجّين على السنّة بالعقل، فإنّ بعض مواقفهم من الأشعريّة …

, an Arab tribe belonging to the group of tribes called ʿĀmir b. Ṣaʿṣaʿa [ q.v.], The territories and pre-Islamic history of the tribe are described in that article. Kilāb was considered to have ten main divisions, of which the chief for a time was D̲j̲aʿfar b. Kilāb, from which came leaders of the whole of ʿĀmir. The most serious war of the Fid̲j̲ār [ q.v.] resulted from the killing of ʿUrwa al-Raḥḥāl of Kilāb by al-Barrāḍ b. Ḳays al-Kinānī. Divisions within the tribe are reflected in hostility to the Muslims and friendship with them. Two men of Kilāb joined…

, great-grand-father of the prophet Muḥammad. As a grandson of Ḳusayy, who had made the tribe of Ḳurays̲h̲ dominant in Mecca and had reorganized the pilgrimage, he held the offices or functions of rifāda and siḳāya , that is, the provision of food and water for the pilgrims. For the first he collected contributions in money or kind from the chief men of Mecca. One year when food was scarce in Mecca, he brought baked cakes or loaves from Syria, and crumbled ( has̲h̲ama ) these to make broth ( t̲h̲arīd ) for the pilgrims; after this he was known as Hās̲h̲im, though…

, the first caliph. i. Name, family, and early life.—Abū Bakr was probably born shortly after 570 as he is said to have been three years younger than Muḥammad. His father was Abū Ḳuḥāfa (ʿUt̲h̲mān) b. ʿĀmir of the clan of Taym of the tribe of Ḳurays̲h̲, and he is therefore sometimes known as Ibn Abī Ḳuḥāfa. His mother was Umm al-Ḵh̲ayr (Salmā) bint Ṣak̲h̲r of the same clan. The names ʿAbd Allāh and ʿAtīḳ (‘freed slave’) are attributed to him as well as Abū Bakr, but the relation of these names to on…

, Alexander the Great. It is generally agreed both by Muslim commentators and modéra occidental scholars that D̲h̲u ’l-Ḳarnayn, “the two-horned”, in Sūra XVIII, 83/82-98 is to be identified with Alexander the Great. The story is told in reply to questioners, often said to be Jews. D̲h̲u ’l-Ḳarnayn was given power on earth, and made his way te the furthest west and furthest east; and in response to an appeal from oppressed people built a wall or rampart of iron and brass against the incursions of Yādiūd̲j̲ and Mād̲j̲ūd̲j̲ [ q.v.]. The origin and precise significance here of the name D…

of B. Hās̲h̲im of Ḳurays̲h̲, father of the prophet Muḥammad. The earliest and most reliable sources give little information about him. His mother was Fāṭima bint ʿAmr of B. Mak̲h̲zūm. Al-Kalbī places his birth in the 24th year of the reign of Anūs̲h̲irwān (554), but he is usually said to have been twenty-five when he died (? 570). According to a well-known story, picturesque but probably with little factual basis, ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib vowed that, if he had ten sons who reached maturity, he would sac…

, banū , a clan of the Meccan tribe of Ḳurays̲h̲. The genealogists reckon Nawfal as one of the sons of ʿAbd Manāf, and brother of ʿAbd S̲h̲ams. Hās̲h̲im and al-Muṭṭalib. Nawfal himself is said to have been specially concerned to develop trade with ʿIrāḳ and the Persian empire, and is also reported to have quarrelled with ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib b. Hās̲h̲im (Muḥammad’s grandfather). Some information has been preserved about the mutual relations of the clans of Ḳurays̲h̲. At one period, all the descendants of ʿAbd Manāf together with some other clans formed a group …

, Abū Muḥammad ʿAbd al-Malik , a scholar best known for his work on the biography of Muḥammad. His family was usually said to be of Ḥimyarite origin, and had moved from Baṣra to Egypt, where he was born and spent his life. His knowledge of genealogy and grammar was outstanding. He died in Egypt on 13 Rabīʿ II 218/8 May 833 or in 213/828. His Kitāb al-Tīd̲j̲ān on South Arabian antiquities is extant. He is chiefly famous, however, for his edition of the Sīra (Life of Muḥammad) of Ibn Isḥāḳ [ q.v.], which became the basic work on this subject. The Sīra of Ibn Isḥāḳ is not preserved as a single work…

, the name of two valleys on the way from Mecca to al-Ṭāʾif, distinguished as S̲h̲aʾmiyya (Syrian, northern) and Yamāniya (Yemenite, southern). The name is presumably due to an abundance of palms ( nak̲h̲l) in the valleys. On a height in Syrian Nak̲h̲la there was an idol of al-ʿUzzā which was specially venerated by Ḳurays̲h̲ and Banū Kināna. Some regarded the circumambulation of al-ʿUzzā as an essential for the completion of the ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ to the Kaʿba. Three Samura trees were closely associated with the deity. After the conquest of Mecca, Muḥa…

, or al-Ḥudaybiyya , a medium-sized village on the edge of the ḥaram or sacred territory of Mecca, one marḥala from Mecca itself. Both the village and the Mosque of the Tree (presumably on the site of the pledge described below) were unknown in the time of al-Fāsi (d. 832/1429). One authority says the name was derived from a dome-shaped or hump-like ( ḥadbāʾ ) tree, but this may be conjecture. The village gave its name to an important Muslim expedition from Medina, led by Muḥammad, in D̲h̲u ’l-Ḳaʿda of the year 6 (March 628). Muḥammad had a dream (cf. Ḳurʾān, XLVII…

is a collective name for the northern Arab tribes (see D̲j̲azīrat al-ʿarab (vi) = i, 544b). According to the standard genealogy, Maʿadd was a son of ʿAdnān [ q.v.]. His son Nizār [ q.v.] had three sons, Muḍar, Iyād and Rabīʿa, from the first and third of whom most of the northern Arabs claimed descent. Maʿadd and his descendants are said to have lived for a time in the neighbourhood of Mecca and to have intermarried with D̲j̲urhum [ q.v.]. The name Maʿadd is found in pre-Islamic poets, e.g. in verses of Imruʾ al-Ḳays (ed. Ahlwardt, no. 41, l. 5) and al-Nābig̲h̲a (ed. Ahlwa…

, ʿalī b. ismāʿīl , theologian, and founder of the school of orthodox theology which bears his name. He is said to have been born in 260/873-4 at Baṣra, and was ninth in descent from the Companion Abū Mūsā al-As̲h̲ʿarī. Little is known of his life. He was one of the best pupils of al-Ḏj̲ubbāʾī, head of the Muʿtazila in Baṣra, and might have succeeded him, had he not left the Muʿtazila for the party of the orthodox traditionists ( ahl al-sunna). This change or conversion is placed in 300/912-3. In later life he moved to Baghdād, and died there in 324/935-6. The story of al-As̲h̲ʿarī’s conversion …

, a group of Muḥammad’s Companions, mentioned chiefly in ascetic and mystical writings, where they have come to typify the ideal of poverty and piety. The ṣuffa or ẓulla (often rendered ‘bench’, ‘banquette’, etc.) was, according to Lane, a long, covered portico or vestibule, which formed part of the mosque at Medina. This—so the legend ran—was the sole home of these men, and they spent their time in study and worship, except when in obedience to a command from Muḥammad they went out to fight. They are sometimes said to have been as many as 400; Lane (s.v. ṣuffa) quotes al-Sayyid Murtaḍā as s…

, a large North Arabian tribe or group of tribes. The genealogy is given as: Hawāzin b. Manṣūr b. ʿIkrima b. K̲h̲aṣafa b. Ḳays b. ʿAylān (see kays ʿaylān , ʿadnān , al-ʿarab (D̲j̲azīrat), vi). Properly speaking Hawāzin includes the tribes of ʿĀmir b. Ṣaʿṣaʿa [ q.v.] and T̲h̲aḳīf [ q.v.], but the term is sometimes restricted to what is more correctly ʿUd̲j̲z Hawāzin, “the rear of Hawāzin”, comprising D̲j̲usham b. Muʿāwiya b. Bakr, Naṣr b. Muʿāwiya b. Bakr and Saʿd b. Bakr [ q.v.]. Among the places reckoned to belong to Hawāzin were: Amlaḥ, ʿAds al-Maṭāḥil, al-Dardā, al-Ḍabʿān, a…

, the most suitable or fitting, a term used by theologians in a technical sense. The "upholders of the aṣlaḥ " were a group of the Muʿtazila who held that God did what was best for mankind. It is nowhere stated who composed the group. Abu ’l-Hud̲h̲ayl held that God did what was. best for men. Al-Naẓẓām introduced the refinement that there were an infinite number of equally good. alternatives, any of which God might adopt instead of acting as He does; in this way he avoided the implication that…

, the name given to an oath exacted by the Prophet from some of his followers during the Medinan period. During the expedition to al-Ḥudaybiya [ q.v.] in D̲h̲u ’l-Ḳaʿda of the year 6 (March 628), a report reached Muḥammad that the Meccans had killed ʿUt̲h̲mān b. ʿAffān, who had gone into Mecca to negotiate a truce. Muḥammad realised that he would lose face unless ʿUt̲h̲mān’s death was avenged, and summoned the members of the expedition to take an oath of allegiance to himself. There are different versions of the content …

, the third and favourite wife of the Prophet, was born at Mecca about 614. Her mother, Umm Rūmān, came from the tribe of Kināna. Muḥammad gave ʿĀʾis̲h̲a the kunya Umm ʿAbd Allāh, after the name of her nephew ʿAbd Allāh b. al-Zubayr. The usual story of her marriage to Muḥammad is that the initiative came from Ḵh̲awla bint Ḥakīm, wife of ʿUt̲h̲mān b. Maẓʿūn, who possibly helped Muḥammad in domestic matters. Some time after the death of Ḵh̲adīd̲j̲a. Ḵh̲awla suggested to Muḥammad that he should marry either ʿĀʾis̲h̲a, the six-year old daugh…

, paternal grandfather of Muḥammad. Passing through Medina on trading journeys to Syria, Hās̲h̲im b. ʿAbd Manāf married Salmā bint ʿAmr of the clan of ʿAdī b. al-Nad̲j̲d̲j̲ār of the Ḵh̲azrad̲j̲, by whom he had two children, ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib (or S̲h̲ayba) and Ruḳayya. The mother and her son remained in her house in Medina, this apparently being the practice of her family in accordance with a matrilineal kinship system. Some time after Hās̲h̲im’s death his brother al-Muṭṭalib tried to strengthen h…

or Mud̲j̲bira , the name given by opponents to those whom they alleged to hold the doctrine of d̲j̲abr , “compulsion”, viz. that man does not really act but only God. It was also used by later heresiographers to describe a group of sects. The Muʿtazila applied it, usually in the form Mud̲j̲bira, to Traditionists, As̲h̲ʿarite theologians and others who denied their doctrine of ḳadar or “free will” (al-K̲h̲ayyāṭ, K. al-intiṣār , 18, 24, 26 f., 49 f., 67, 69, 135 f.; Ibn Ḳutayba, K. taʾwīl muk̲h̲talif al-ḥadīt̲h̲ , 96; Ibn al-Murtaḍā, K. al-munya (ed. Arnold), 45, 71 — of Fak̲h̲r al-Dīn al…

, Abū Bakr Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan b. Fūrak al-Anṣārī al-Iṣbahānī , As̲h̲ʿarite theologian and traditionist, was born about 330/941, perhaps in Ispahan. In ʿIrāḳ, both at Basra and at Baghdad, he studied As̲h̲ʿarite kalām under Abu ’l-Ḥasan al-Bāhilī along with al-Bāḳillānī [ q.v.] and al-Isfarāʾinī [ q.v.], and also traditions under ʿAbd Allāh b. Ḏj̲aʿfar al-Iṣbahānī. From ʿIrāḳ he went to Rayy, then to Nis̲h̲āpūr, where a madrasa was built for him beside the k̲h̲ānḳāh of the ṣūfī al-Būs̲h̲and̲j̲ī. He was in Nīs̲h̲āpūr before the death of the ṣūfī Abū ʿUt̲h̲mān …

b. bāb , one of the first of the Muʿtazila, with the kunya , Abū ʿUt̲h̲mān. His grandfather Bāb was captured by Muslims at Kābul. He himself was born at Balk̲h̲ in 80/699 and was a mawlā of a branch of Tamīm. His father apparently moved to Baṣra, and ʿAmr seems for a time to have been a member of the school of al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrī, though al-Ḏj̲āhiẓ also speaks of him as a pupil of al-Faḍl b. ʿĪsā al-Raḳas̲h̲ī. He also had some connexion with Yazīd III. He gained a great reputation as an ascetic, and was known a…

, or Badr Ḥunayn, a small town south-west of Medina, a night’s journey from the coast, and at the junction of a road from Medina with the caravan route from Mecca to Syria. It lies in a plain, 5 m. (8 km.) long and 2½ m. (4 km.) broad, surrounded by steep hills and sand-dunes, and was a market centre. Here occurred on 17 (or 19 or 21) Ramaḍān, 2 A. H. (= 13 or 15 or 17 March, 624) the first great battle of Muḥammad’s career. Though there is a wealth of detail in the early sources, it is difficult to give a clear account of the battle and the events which…

b. Salūl (Salul being Ubayy’s mother), chief of Ba ʾl-Ḥublā (also known as Sālim), a section of the clan of ʿAwf of the Ḵh̲azrad̲j̲, and one of the leading men of Medīna. Prior to the hid̲j̲ra he had led some of the Ḵh̲azrad̲j̲ in the first day of the Fid̲j̲ār at Medīna, but did not take part in the second day of the Fid̲j̲ār nor the battle of Buʿāt̲h̲ since he had quarreled with another leader, ʿAmr b. al-Nuʿmān of Bayāḍa, over the latter’s unjust killing of Jewish hostages, perhaps because he r…

, one of the two main Arab tribes in Medina. With the other tribe, al-Aws [ q.v.], it formed the Banū Ḳayla in pre-Islamic times and the Anṣār [ q.v.] or “helpers” (sc. of Muḥammad) under Islam. The ancestors of al-K̲h̲azrad̲j̲ are given under al-Aws. The following are the main subdivisions of the tribe: Al-K̲h̲azrad̲j̲ and al-Aws settled together in Yat̲h̲rib or Medina after leaving the Yemen, and for a time were subordinate to the Jews there. The ¶ leader in gaining independence from the Jews was Mālik b. al-ʿAd̲j̲lān of the clan of Sālim (Ḳawāḳila) of al-K̲h̲azrad̲j̲. …

, with the kunya Abu ’l-Faḍl, half-brother of Muḥammad’s father, his mother being Nutayla bint ¶ Ḏj̲anāb of al-Namir. The ʿAbbāsid dynasty took its name from him, being descended from his son ʿAbd Allāh. Consequently there was a tendency for historians under the ʿAbbāsids to glorify him, and in his case it is particularly difficult to distinguish fact from fiction. He was a merchant and financier, more prosperous than his half-brother Abū Ṭālib, who, in return for the extinction of a debt, surrendered to him the office of providing pilgrims to Mecca with water ( siḳāya …

, the Biblical Isaac, mentioned in fifteen passages of the Ḳurʾān. God gives Abraham ¶ “good tidings of Isaac, a prophet, of the righteous”, and blesses them both (XXXVII 112 f.). In a fuller description, when messengers concerning Lot corne to Abraham; his wife “laughed, and we gave her good tidings of Isaac, and af ter Isaac of Jacob” (XI, 71/74); and it is explained that this will happen despite their age. Several verses speak of Isaac and Jacob being given to Abraham (VI, 84; XIX, 49…

(a.), the Emigrants, are primarily those Meccan Muslims who made the hid̲j̲ra or emigration from Mecca to Medina either just before Muḥammad himself or in the period up to the conquest of Mecca in 8/630. The word hid̲j̲ra [ q.v.] implies not only change of residence but also the ending of ties of kinship and the replacement of these by new relationships. In the document known as the Constitution of Medina (Ibn His̲h̲ām, 341-4), which is an agreement “between the Emigrants and the Anṣār (the Muslims of Medina)”, the Emigrants appear a…

foster-mother of the prophet Muḥammad. She and her husband belonged to the tribe of Saʿd b. Bakr, a subdivision of Hawāzin. Muḥammad was given to her to suckle from soon after his birth until he was two years old. Well-to-do families thought desert-life healthier for infants than that in Mecca. Some modern scholars have doubted the whole episode, but Muḥammad probably lived with this tribe for a time. After the battle of Ḥunayn he honoured his fostersister al-S̲h̲aymā, and responded favourably w…

the granting of protection ( d̲j̲iwār [ q.v.]) to a stranger according to ancient Arab practice. This form of protection was especially important for those who travelled about, but it was also used in other cases. The d̲j̲ār (pl. d̲j̲īrān ) is mostly the person protected, but may also be the protector (as in Sūra VIII, 48/50; Mufaḍḍaliyyāt , 760, 18). To ask for protection is istad̲j̲āra (Sūra IX, 6). The granting of protection was announced publicly (cf. Zaynab’s id̲j̲āra of her former pagan husband in Ibn His̲h̲ām, 469); and thus, when ʿUt̲h̲mān b. Maẓʿūn wanted to renounce the d̲j̲iwār of …

or banū ’l-ḳayn , often contracted ¶ to Bal-Ḳayn (cf. Bal-Ḥārit̲h̲, etc.), the name of one or more Arab tribes. The best known is part of the tribal group of Ḳuḍāʿa, and al-Ḳayn is here interpreted as the nickname of al-Nuʿmān b. D̲j̲asr, so that the tribe is known as al-Ḳayn b. D̲j̲asr. The word ḳayn means “worker in iron”, “smith”, or possibly “slave”, and is used as a term of contempt in the Naḳāʾid D̲j̲arīr wa’l-Farazdaḳ . There is no evidence, however, of any connexion of Bal-Ḳayn b. D̲j̲asr with smiths. They act as a normal Bedouin tribe, and …

(a.) “brothering”, is a practice found in the early days of Islam by which two men became “brothers”. The best-known example is the “brothering” by Muḥammad of Emigrants from Mecca with Muslims from Medina. This may have happened soon after he reached Medina, but is placed by Ibn Isḥāḳ just before the battle of Badr, accompanied by a list of thirteen such pairs (Ibn His̲h̲ām, 344-6). It is clear, however, from Ibn Ḥabīb ( Muḥabbar , 70 f.) that there had previously been some “brothering” at Mecca, and he gives a list of nine pairs. This is confirm…

b. Ḥarb b. Umayya , of the clan of ʿAbd S̲h̲ams of Ḳurays̲h̲, prominent Meccan merchant and financier (to be distinguished from Muḥammad’s cousin, Abū Sufyān b. al-Ḥārit̲h̲ b. ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib). His name was Ṣak̲h̲r, and his kunya is sometimes given as Abū Ḥanẓala. ʿAbd S̲h̲ams had been at one time a member of the political group known as the Muṭayyabūn (which included the clan of Hās̲h̲im), but about Muḥammad’s time had moved away from this group and in some matters cooperated with the rival group, Mak̲h̲zūm.…

, ancient Arab tribe, part of Bakr b. Wāʾil [ q.v.] on a level with T̲h̲aʿlaba and ʿId̲j̲l. The chief subdivisions were al-Dūl (or al-Duʾil), ʿAdī, ʿĀmir, Suḥaym. They were partly nomadic, partly agricultural (date-palms and cereals), and also partly pagan, partly Christian. The town of al-Had̲j̲r, capital of al-Yamāma, belonged chiefly to them, also the town of Ḏj̲aww (later al-K̲h̲idrima). Other localities mentioned as belonging to them (and as chiefly occupied by them) include: the wādī of al-ʿIrḍ, al-Awḳa, Fays̲h̲ān, al-Kirs, Ḳurrān, al-Manṣif …

, Muḥammad’s mother. Her father was Wahb b. ʿAbd Manāf of the clan of Zuhra of the tribe of Ḳurays̲h̲, and her mother Barra bint ¶ ʿAbd al-ʿUzzā of the clan of ʿAbd al-Dār. It is said that She was the ward of her uncle Wuhayb b. ʿAbd Manāf, and that on the day he betrothed her to ʿAbd Allāh b. ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib he also betrothed his own daughter Hāla to ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib (Ibn Saʿd, i/1, 58). If this report is correct it may be an example of some forgotten marriage-custom. Āmina seems to have remained…

b. kaʿb al-ʿansī , of the tribe of Mad̲h̲ḥid̲j̲, leader of the first ridda in al-Yaman. His proper name is said to have been ʿAyhala or ʿAbhala, and he was also known as Ḏh̲u ’l-Ḵh̲imār, "the veiled one" (or Ḏh̲u ’l-Ḥimār, "the man with the donkey"). After the murder of Ḵh̲usraw II Parwīz (Ar. Abarwīz) in 628, but possibly not before the capture of Mecca in 630, the Persians in al-Yaman, under Bād̲h̲ām (or Bād̲h̲ān), made an alliance with Muḥammad, since they realised that they could ob…

, chief of the clan of Sāʿida at Medina. The clan appears to have been small since it is not mentioned in the fighting leading to the battle of Buʿāth [ q.v.], but it may have been more influential than its size warranted, perhaps because it was wealthy. Only two members of the clan were at the second meeting with Muḥammad at al-ʿAḳaba [ q.v.], but both were included among the nuḳabāʾ or representatives. One of these was Saʿd b. ʿUbāda, who had become a Muslim at an early date. Saʿd was badly treated by some Meccans on his way back from al-ʿAḳ…

(a.), creed; but sometimes also doctrine, dogma or article of faith; and hence ʿaḳāʾid (pl.), articles of faith, is also used for "creed". 1. The Development and Use of the Form. The documents to which the terms ʿaḳīda or ʿaḳāʾid are applied vary in length, and the longer ones cannot be sharply divided from the comprehensive theological treatises (e.g. al-ʿAḳīda al-Niẓāmiyya by al-Ḏj̲uwaynī). The terms, however, may usefully be taken to signify compositions where the chief interest is in the formulation of doctrine or dogma, and not…

, first wife of Muḥammad, daughter of K̲h̲uwaylid of the clan of Asad of the tribe of Ḳurays̲h̲ in Mecca. Before her marriage to Muḥammad she had been married twice, to Abū Hāla al-Tamīmī, a client of the Meccan clan of ʿAbd al-Dār, and to ʿUtayyiḳ (or ʿAtīḳ) b. ʿĀʾid̲h̲ (incorrectly ʿĀbid) b. ʿAbd Allāh of the Meccan clan of Mak̲h̲zūm. The order of these marriages is disputed, as is also the ism of Abū Hāla and his genealogy. To Abū Hāla she is mostly said to have borne two sons with the (usually feminine) names of Hind and Hāla, and to ʿUtayy…

, opponent of Muḥammad at Medina, reckoned to belong to his mother’s clan al-Naḍīr, though his father was an Arab of the Nabhān section of Ṭayyiʾ. He presumably followed the Jewish custom of taking his religion from his mother, but it is doubtful if he was a scholar, as the words in a poem sayyid al-aḥbār (Ibn His̲h̲ām, 659, 12) would imply, if the poem were genuine. Aroused by the deaths of many leading Meccans at Badr, he went to Mecca and used his considerable poetic gifts (he is called faḥl faṣiḥ in K. al-Ag̲h̲ānī ) to incite Ḳurays̲h̲ to fight the Muslims. On hi…

(a.) (pl. ḥunafāʾ ), means in Islamic writing one who follows the original and true (monotheistic) religion. 1. The Ḳurʾān. The word ḥanīf is used especially of Abraham as the type of this pure worship of God; II, 135/129; III, 67/60, 95/89; IV, 125/124; VI, 79, 161/162; XVI, 120/121, 123/124; XXII, 31/32. In most of these verses the ḥanīf is contrasted with the idolaters ( mus̲h̲rikūn ). Il is also asserted that Abraham was neither a Jew nor a Christian (III, 67/60; cf. II, 135/129), and that the people of the book were originally commanded to worship God as ḥunafāʾ (XCVIII, 5/4). In the rem…

, chief of the clan of ʿAbd al-As̲h̲hal in Medina in succession to his father. At the time of the Hid̲j̲ra he seems to have been the strongest man in the tribe of al-Aws, of which his clan was a part. He had taken part in the fighting prior to the battle of Buʿāt̲h̲ [ q.v.] and been wounded. The leader of al-Aws at Buʿāt̲h̲, Ḥuḍayr b. Simāk, is reckoned to another clan, but his son, Usayd b. Ḥuḍayr, seems to have been second-in-command to Saʿd in ʿAbd al-As̲h̲hal. Saʿd and Usayd were both for a time opposed to Islam and wanted to stop its spread, bu…

, ‘the helpers’, the usual designation of those men of Medina who supported Muḥammad, in distinction from the Muhād̲j̲irūn or ‘emigrants’ i.e. his Meccan followers. After the general conversion of the Arabs to Islam the old name of al-Aws and al-Ḵh̲azrad̲j̲ jointly, Banū Ḳayla, fell out of use and was replaced by Anṣār, the individual being known as an Anṣārī (cf. Ḳurʾān, ix, 100/101, 117/118). In this way the early services of the men of Medina to the cause of Islam were honourably commemorated. Anṣār is presumably the plural of naṣīr , but the latter is never used as a technical term. The verb n…

, properly Abu ’l-Ḥakam ʿAmr b. His̲h̲ām b. al-Mug̲h̲īra of the Banū Mak̲h̲zūm of Ḳurays̲h̲, also named Ibn al-Ḥanẓaliyya after his ¶ mother, Asmāʾ bint Muk̲h̲arriba. He was born about 570 or a little after; he and Muḥammad were youths together at a feast in the house of ʿAbd Allāh b. Ḏj̲udʿān, while his mother became a Muslim and lived until after 13/635. A few years before the Hid̲j̲ra Abū Ḏj̲ahl seems to have succeeded al-Walīd b. al-Mug̲h̲īra as leader of Mak̲h̲zūm and also of the group of clans associated with …

, Abū ʿAbd Allāh or Abū ʿAbd al-Raḥmān , one of the poets supporting Muḥammad, was an Anṣārī of the clan of Salima of the tribe of al-K̲h̲azrad̲j̲ [see al-anṣār ]. He must have been born before 600 A.D., since he is said to have taken part in the internal fighting in Medina before the Hid̲j̲ra, and to have been present at the second ʿAḳaba [ q.v.], when allegiance was sworn to Muḥammad. He was not present at Badr, but took part in most of the subsequent expeditions led by Muḥammad. At Uḥud he received several wounds and was the first to recognize Muḥammad after the rumour ¶ that he had been killed. S…

, Banū , one of the three main Jewish tribes of Yat̲h̲rib (Medina), with lands towards the south-east of the oasis. As in the case of the other Jewish groups, it is not known whether they were descended from refugees of Hebrew stock or from Arabs who had adopted Judaism. They adhered firmly to the Jewish religion, but at the same time had adopted many Arab practices and had intermarried with Arabs. According to a genealogy given by al-Samhūdī, Ḳurayẓa, Hadl and ʿAmr were sons…

al-Ṣaymarī (or al-Ḍaymarī ), one of the Muʿtazila of Baṣra, died c. 250/864. He was a pupil of His̲h̲ām b. ʿAmr al-Fuwaṭī ( fl.c. 210/825), like his father criticizing the main tendency of the school of Baṣra (that of Abu ’l-Hud̲h̲ayl), and being in his turn criticized by Abu ’l-Hud̲h̲ayl’s successors, al-Ḏj̲ubbāʾī and Abū Hās̲h̲im. Our knowledge of his distinctive views comes mainly from al-As̲h̲ʿarī’s Maḳālāt . He emphasized the difference between God and man, admitting that God might be called a "thing" in the sense that He was "other" ( l.c., 519). In particular he insisted that G…

, son of ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib and Lubnā bint Hād̲j̲ir (of Ḵh̲uzāʿa), and half-brother of Muḥammad’s father. His name was ʿAbd al-ʿUzza and his kunya Abū ʿUtba; Abū Lahab (literally "father of the flame") was a nickname given by his father on account of his beauty. At one time, doubtless before Muḥammad’s preaching had roused opposition, he was friendly with his nephew, for his sons ʿUtba and ʿUtayba were married (or perhaps only betrothed) to Muḥammad’s daughters Ruḳayya and Umm…

, son of ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib b. Hās̲h̲im and Fāṭima bint ʿAmr (of Mak̲h̲zūm), and full brother of Muḥammad’s father. His own name was ʿAbd Manāf. He is said to have inherited the offices of siḳāya and rifāda (providing water and food for pilgrims) from his father, but at the Ḥilf al-Fuḍūl and war of the Fid̲j̲ār his brother al-Zubayr seems to have been the leading man of Hās̲h̲im. He fell into debt, and to meet this surrendered the siḳāya and rifāda to al-ʿAbbās. Nevertheless he seems to have remained chief of the clan of Hās̲h̲im, and their quarter of the town was called the s̲h̲iʿb …

, time, especially infinitely extended time (cf. Lane; al-Bayḍāwī on K. 76.1). The pre-Islamic Arabs, as is shown by many passages in their poetry, regarded time (also zamān , and al-ayyām , the days) as the source of what happened to a man, both good and bad; they thus give it something of the connotation ¶ of Fate, though without worshipping it (W. L. Schrameier, Über den Fatalismus der vorislamischen Araber , Bonn 1881; Th. Nöldeke, Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics , i, 661 b; for possible parallels cf. A. Christensen, Iran , 149 f., 157—Zurvān as both time …

, a mountain-road, or a place difficult of ascent on a hill or acclivity. There are many places of this name: the best-known is that between Minā and Mecca. Here, according to traditional accounts, Muḥammad had secret meetings with men from Medina at the pilgrimages of the years 621 and 622 A. D. In 621, at “the first ʿAḳaba”, twelve were present, and they gave to Muḥammad an undertaking known as ‘the pledge of the women’ ( bayʿat al-nisāʾ ); at “the second ʿAḳaba” seventy-three men and two women promised to defend Muḥammad, if necessary, by arms, in what is known as ‘the pledge of war’ ( bayʿat al-ḥ…

, people observing rigorous religious taboos, especially Ḳurays̲h̲ and certain neighbouring tribes. The word is the plural of aḥmas , “hard, strong (in fighting or in religion)”, but one of the Ḥums is called aḥmasī (fern, aḥmasiyya ). Ibn His̲h̲ām (126) thinks that taḥammus , the observance of the taboos in question, was an innovation of Ḳurays̲h̲ about the time of Muḥammad’s birth, and some changes may have been made to emphasize the superiority of Ḳurays̲h̲ to other tribes; but the nature of the taboos makes it li…

, an early sect, frequently mentioned but somewhat mysterious. Identity. No names are known of any members of the sect, apart from the alleged founder D̲j̲ahm [ q.v.]. The basic fact is that “after the translation of the Greek books in the second century a doctrine ( maḳāla ) known as that of the D̲j̲ahmiyya was spread by Bis̲h̲r b. G̲h̲iyāt̲h̲ al-Marīsī [ q.v.] and his generation (IbnTaymiyya, ʿAḳīda Ḥamawiyya , ap. M. Schreiner in ZDMG, liii, 72 f.; lii, 544). A pupil of Abū Yūsuf (d. 182/798), Bis̲h̲r (d. 218/833 or a little later) was questioned about his strange v…

, a North Arabian tribe, reckoned part of D̲h̲ubyān, which was itself included in G̲h̲aṭafān [ q.v.]. Its main pasture-grounds were in Wādi ’l-Rumma in Nad̲j̲d, and the names of many localities associated with it have been preserved (cf. Yāḳūt, index, s.v. Fazāra). In the Ḏj̲āhiliyya the famous war of Dāḥis between Abs and D̲h̲ubyān arose out of a wager between Ḳays b. Zuhayr, chief of Abs, and Ḥud̲h̲ayfa b. Badr of Fazāra about their respective horses Dāḥis and G̲h̲abrā. The latter won because of underhand acts by some men of Fazāra, and this led to the killing of a brother of Ḥud̲h̲ayfa. ¶ In t…

, an ancient Arab tribe reckoned to the ʿArab al-ʿĀriba (see art. ʿarab , d̲j̲azīrat al-, vi). According to later standard Arab tradition, D̲j̲urhum was descended from Yaḳtān (Ḳaḥtān). The tribe migrated from the Yaman to Mecca. After a protracted struggle with another tribe Ḳatūra (also referred to as ʿAmālīḳ), led by al-Sumaydiʿ, D̲j̲urhum under their chief (called Muḍād b. ʿAmr, al-Ḥārit̲h̲ b. Muḍāḍ, etc.) gained control of the Kaʿba. This they retained till driven out by Bakr b. ʿAbd Manāt of K̲h̲uzāʿa. Th…

, ditch, trench or moat. The word seems to have come into Arabic from Persian through Syriac (cf. A. Siddiqi, Studien über die persischen Fremdwörter im klassischen Arabisch , Göttingen 1919). It is also known as a place-name (cf. Yāḳūt, ii, 476; al-Balād̲h̲urī, Futūḥ , 85). Its best-known application is to the so-called “expedition of the K̲h̲andaḳ”, in which Muḥammad foiled a Meccan attempt to storm Medina by digging a moat or trench at those parts of the oasis which were open to attack by cavalry. This was in D̲h̲…

, ancient Arabian tribe, reckoned part of Bakr b. Wāʾil [ q.v.]. Their common ancestor ʿId̲j̲l b. Lud̲j̲aym was proverbially noted for his stupidity (Goldziher, Muh . St., i, 48n; Eng. tr. i, 52n.). The tribe as a whole had a reputation for niggardliness (Masʿūdī, vi, 138f.; Yāḳūt, i, 183). They originally lived in al-Yamāma and in the region about the roads from Kūfa and Baṣra to Mecca. Among the settled localities belonging to them were Arāka, D̲j̲awk̲h̲āʾ and al-K̲h̲aḍārim; while their waters included Buḳayʿ, Tuḳayyid,…

, a place on the road from Mecca to Medina, 23 miles from al-Ḏj̲uḥfa in the territory of Banū Ḍamra of Kināna. According to some authorities the name really belonged to a mountain situated there. Muḥammad’s mother, Āmina, is commonly said to have died there while returning from Medina to Mecca, and to be buried there; but she is sometimes said to be buried in Mecca (Ṭabarī, i, 980). The first expedition from Medina in which Muḥammad himself took part was to al-Abwāʾ and Waddān nearby. It is said…

b. Ḥabīb, Abū T̲h̲umāma , a man of Banū Ḥanīfa who lived in al-Yamāma and led a large section of his tribe in revolt during the wars of the ridda [ q.v.]. The suggestion of some European scholars (as in the article in EI 1) that Musaylima is a contemptuous diminutive of Maslama appears to be mistaken. Because he claimed to be a prophet he is often called al-Kad̲h̲d̲h̲āb, the liar or false prophet. He is also said to have been called al-Raḥmān (al-Balād̲h̲urī, 105; al-Wāḳidī, 82); but this seems unlikely since al-Raḥmān was a name of God. …

, Abu muḥriz , early theologian, sometimes called al-Tirmid̲h̲ī or al-Samarḳandī. He was a client of Rāsib (a baṭn of Azd) and appears as secretary to al-Ḥārit̲h̲ b. Surayd̲j̲, “The man with the black banner” who revolted against the Umayyads and from 116/734 to 128/746 controlled tracts of eastern K̲h̲urāsān, sometimes in alliance with Turks. D̲j̲ahm was captured and executed in 128/746, shortly before al-Ḥārit̲h̲ himself. The basis of this movement of revolt, of which D̲j̲ahm was intellect…

, of Banū Asad b. Ḵh̲uzayma, a confederate ( ḥalīf ) of Banū Umayya of Ḳurays̲h̲. His mother was Umayma bint ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib, Muḥammad’s aunt. An early Muslim along with his brothers, ʿUbayd Allāh and Abū Aḥmad, he took part with the former in the migration to Abyssinia. ʿUbayd Allāh became a Christian and died there, but ʿAbd Allāh returned to Mecca and was the most prominent of a group of confederates, including his sister Zaynab [ q.v.], who all migrated to Medina. He led the much-criticized raid to Nak̲h̲la where Muslims first shed Meccan blood, and fought at Badr. …

, daughter of Muḥammad and his wife K̲h̲adīd̲j̲a. She is sometimes said to have been the eldest of his four daughters, but this is unlikely. She and her sister Umm Kult̲h̲ūm were betrothed and married to two sons of Abū Lahab [ q.v.], but the latter told his sons to divorce their wives when Muḥammad began his career as a prophet. The divorces could not have been, as sometimes stated, after the revelation of ¶ sūra CXI, in which Abū Lahab is attacked, unless that was an early Meccan revelation. The statement in some sources that the divorces took …

, latinized as Hegira, the emigration of Muḥammad from Mecca to Medina in September 622. The first stem of the verb, had̲j̲ara , means “to cut someone off from friendly association” (cf Ḳurʾān IV, 34/38) or “to avoid association with” (LXXIII, 10); there is often an explicit or implicit reference to a sexual relationship, as in the first Ḳurʾānic verse. The third stem hād̲j̲ara refers to a mutual ending of friendly relationships. Thus hid̲j̲ra properly does not mean “flight” as it has been traditionally translated but connotes primarily the brea…

, name of a tribe or place: (1) A tribe called Iram is mentioned several times in ancient poems (over a dozen references are given by J. Horovitz, Koranische Untersuchungen , Berlin 1926, 89 f.). It is mostly coupled with ʿĀd, but sometimes also with T̲h̲amūd. Ḥimyar, etc., and is said to have been destroyed by a man called Ḳudār al-Aḥmar (Uḥaymir). In this meaning Iram is an ajicient Arabian tribe. In his Muʿallaḳa , 68, al-Ḥārīth b. Ḥilliza uses the adjective iramī in the sense of ‘a man of ancient race’ (cf. al-Tibrīzī, ad loc). When Muslim scholars came to link up traditional Arab gen…

, Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad b. Muḥammad al-Ṭūsī (450/1058-505/1111), outstanding theologian, jurist, original thinker, mystic and religious reformer. There has been much discussion since ancient times whether his nisba should be G̲h̲azālī or G̲h̲azzālī; cf. Brockelmann, S I, 744; the former is to be preferred in accordance with the principle of difficilior lectio potius. 1. Life He was born at Ṭūs in Ḵh̲urāsān, near the modern Mes̲h̲hed, in 450/1058. He and his brother Aḥmad were left orphans at an early age. Their education was begun in Ṭūs. Then al-G̲h̲a…

, Banū , a small Arab tribe, usually reckoned as part of the tribe or tribal group of Hawāzin [ q.v.]. To a section of this tribe belonged Ḥalīma bint Abī Ḏh̲uʾayb, Muḥammad’s wet-nurse. After the battle of Ḥunayn [ q.v.] her daughter S̲h̲aymāʾ, who had been taken prisoner, obtained her release by proving to Muḥammad that she was his milk-sister [see also raḍāʿ. 2]; and some of the men of the tribe, because they were Muḥammad’s milk-brothers, were able to facilitate various negotiations. The tribe was apparently divided into several small sections. The grou…

, a branch of the tribe of Tamīm [ q.v.], of the group of Maʿādd, descended from Zayd Manāt b. Tamīm. The chief subdivisions were Dārim (from which came the poet al-Farazdaḳ), Yarbūʿ (to which D̲j̲arīr belonged) and the Barād̲j̲im (five families descended from Mālik b. Ḥanẓala). They inhabited the Yamāma between the hills D̲j̲urād and Marrūt, near ḥimā Ḍariyya [ q.v.]. Among their villages were al-Ṣammān (with wells, cisterns and irrigation) and al-Raḳmatān; but they were mainly nomadic. In history they appear at the first “day of Kulāb” (probably before 550 A.D.) as suppo…

, an Arab tribe, reckoned along with Ḵh̲at̲h̲ʿam as a subdivision of Anmār; the nisba is Bad̲j̲alī. Bad̲j̲īla is sometimes said to be a woman, but her place in the genealogy is vague (cf. F. Wüstenfeld, Register zu den genealogischen Tabellen , 101-3; also Die Chroniken der Stadt Mekka , Leipzig 1858, ii, 134). Some genealogists held that Bad̲j̲īla was a Yemenite tribe; others made Anmār the son of Nīzār b. Maʿadd b. ʿAdnān (Ibn Ḥad̲j̲ar, Usd al-G̲h̲āba , i, 279, art. ‘Ḏj̲arīr b. ʿAbd Allāh’; Ibn Durayd, ed. Wüstenfeld, 101 f.). The tribe was sometim…

, one of the two main Arab tribes in Medina. The other was al-Ḵh̲azrad̲j̲, and the two, which in pre-Islamic times were known as Banū Ḳayla from their reputed mother, constituted after the Hid̲j̲ra the ‘helpers’ of Muḥammad or Anṣār [ q.v.]. The genealogy as given by Ibn Saʿd (iii/2,1) is: al-Aws b. T̲h̲aʿlaba b. ʿAmr (Muzayḳiyāʾ) b. ʿĀmir (Māʾ al-Samāʾ) b. Ḥārit̲h̲a b. Imriʾ al-Ḳays b. T̲h̲aʿlaba b. Māzin b. al-Azd b. al-G̲h̲awt̲h̲ b. Nabt b. Mālik b. Zayd b. Kahlān b. Sabaʾ b. Yas̲h̲d̲j̲ub b. Yaʿrub b. Ḳaḥṭān. The following table giv…

, an early companion of Muḥammad’s, commonly known as al-Arḳam b. Abi ’l-Arḳam, and having the kunya Abū ʿAbd Allāh. His father’s name was ʿAbd Manāf, and he belonged to the influential clan of Mak̲h̲zūm at Mecca. His mother’s name is variously given, but she is usually said to be of the tribe of Ḵh̲uzāʿa. As al-Arḳam’s death is placed in 53/673 or 55/675 at the age of over eighty, he must have been born about 594; and he must have become a Muslim when very young, sin…

b. K̲h̲uzayma , an Arab tribe, genealogically related to Asad (b. K̲h̲uzayma) [ q.v.]. The territories of Kināna were around Mecca from the Tihāma on the south-west, where they were next to Hud̲h̲ayl, to the north-east where they bordered on Asad. There were six main subdivisions of the tribe, though more are sometimes mentioned: al-Naḍr (or Ḳays), the ancestor of Ḳurays̲h̲ [ q.v.], which is reckoned a separate tribe; Mālik; Milkān (or Malkān); ʿĀmir; ʿAmr; ʿAbd Manāt. The latter was further subdivided. Bakr b. ʿAbd Manāt was a strong group, ¶ and included as parts Mudlid̲j̲, al-Duʾi…

, a theological school, the followers of Abu ’l-Ḥasan al-As̲h̲ʿarī [ q.v.], sometimes also called As̲h̲āʿira. (The history of the school has been little studied, and some of the statements in this article must be regarded as provisional). External history. During the last two decades of his life al-As̲h̲ʿarī attracted a number of disciples, and thus a school was founded. The doctrinal position of the new school was open to attack from several quarters. Apart from members of the Muʿtazila, certain groups of orthodox theologians attacked them. To the Ḥanbalīs [ q.v.] their use of ration…

, the tribe inhabiting Mecca in the time of Muḥammad and to which he belonged; the name, which may be a nickname, is mostly (e.g. Ibn His̲h̲ām, 61) said to come from taḳarrus̲h̲ , “a coming together, association”; but it is also possible (cf. Ṭabarī, i, 1104) that it is the diminutive of ḳirs̲h̲ , “shark”, and it could then be a totemic name like Kalb, etc. (A man called Ḳurays̲h̲, other than Fihr, is mentioned in Nasab Ḳurays̲h̲ , 12.7-9.) The tribe is taken to consist of the descendants of Fihr, and he himself is sometimes spoken of as Ḳurays̲h̲; bu…

, Banū, petite tribu arabe, habituellement reconnue comme un membre de la confédération des Hawāzin [ q.v.]. C’est à une fraction de cette tribu qu’appartenait Ḥalīma bint Abī Ḏh̲uʾayb, la nourrice du Prophète. Après la bataille de Ḥunayn [ q.v.], sa fille S̲h̲aymāʾ, qui avait été capturée, obtint sa libération en prouvant à Muḥammad qu’elle était sa sœur de lait [voir aussi Raḍāʿ 2]. En outre, plusieurs ¶ hommes de la tribu, du fait qu’ils étaient les frères de lait de Muḥammad, furent en mesure de faciliter diverses négociations. La tribu semble avoir été div…

ou al-Ḥudaybiyya, village de dimension moyenne en bordure du ḥaram ou territoire sacré de la Mekke, à une marḥala de la Mekke même. Le village et la Mosquée de l’Arbre (à l’emplacement probable du serment dont il sera question plus loin) n’étaient pas connus du vivant d’al-Fāsī (m. 832/1429); une autorité affirme que l’appellation est due à un arbre en forme de dôme ou de bosse mais ce n’est là qu’une conjecture. Le village a donné son nom à une expédition musulmane importante, partie de Médine et conduite par Muhammad en dhū l-ḳaʿda de l’année 6/mars 628; celui-ci …

, appellation collective des tribus du Nord de l’Arabie [voir al-ʿArab, Ḏj̲azīrat—, VI — I, 562 a]. D’après la généalogie courante, Maʿadd était un fils de ʿAdnān [ q.v.]; son fils Nizār [ q.v.] eut trois fils, Muḍar, Iyād et Rabīʿa. Les Arabes du Nord se disent pour la plupart les descendants de Muḍar et de Rabīʿa. Maʿadd et ses descendants auraient vécu pendant un certain temps dans les environs de La Mekke, où ils auraient contracté des mariages avec les Ḏj̲urhum[ q.v.]. Le nom de Maʿadd se retrouve chez les poètes préislamiques, comme, par exemple, dans les vers d’Imruʾ a…

ou Mud̲j̲bira, nom donné par leurs adversaires à ceux qui, d’après eux, professaient la doctrine du d̲j̲abr «contrainte», c’est-à-dire selon laquelle ce n’est pas l’homme qui agit en réalité par lui-même, mais Dieu. Ce nom fut aussi employé par des hérésiographes postérieurs pour désigner un groupe de sectes. Les Muʿtazilites l’appliquèrent, en général sous la forme Mud̲j̲bira, aux traditionnistes, aux théologiens as̲h̲ʿarites et à d’autres qui rejetaient leur doctrine du ḳadar ou «libre-arbitre» (al-Ḵh̲ayyāt. K. al-Intiṣār, 18, 24, 26 sq., 49 sq., 67, 69, 135 sq.; Ibn Ḳutayba, K. …

, nom de deux vallées sur la route de La Mekke à al-Ṭāʾif appelées, pour les distinguer, l’une S̲h̲aʾmiyya (syrienne, septentrionale) et l’autre Yamāniya (yéménite, méridionale). Ce nom est probablement dû à une abondance de palmiers ( nak̲h̲l). Sur une hauteur de la Nak̲h̲la syrienne, il y avait une idole d’al-ʿUzzā particulièrement vénérée par les Ḳurays̲h̲ites et les Banū Kināna, et certains considéraient que les tournées autour d’elle étaient essentielles pour l’accomplissement du ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ à la Kaʿba; trois gommiers ( samur) étaient étroitement associés à la déité, et…

, chef du clan des Sāʿida à Médine. Ce clan semble avoir été réduit, car il n’est pas cité ¶ à l’occasion du combat ayant abouti à la bataille de Buʿāt̲h̲ [ q.v.], mais il pourrait avoir été plus influent que ses effectifs auraient pu le laisser penser, peut-être parce qu’il était riche. Seuls, deux membres du clan figuraient à la seconde assemblée d’al-ʿAḳaba [ q.v.] avec le Prophète, mais tous deux étaient comptés comme nuḳabāʾ (représentants). L’un des deux était Saʿd b. ʿUbāda, devenu Musulman depuis longtemps. Saʿd fut maltraité à son retour d’al-ʿAḳaba par certai…

, un des premiers Compagnons de Muḥammad, communément nommé al-Arḳam b. Abī l-Arḳam, avec la kunya d’Abū ʿAbd Allāh. Le nom de son père était ʿAbd Manāf, et il appartenait au clan influent des Mak̲h̲zūm à la Mekke. On n’est pas d’accord sur le nom de sa mère, mais on la fait généralement appartenir à la tribu de Ḵh̲uzāʿa. ¶ Comme on fixe la mort d’al-Arḳam en 53/673 ou 55/675, à plus de quatre-vingts ans, il doit être né vers 594; il doit être devenu musulman très jeune, puisqu’il fut l’un des premiers convertis: une source prétend qu’il avait sept ans,…

ou Ḏj̲urham, ancienne tribu arabe comptée parmi al-ʿArab al-ʿâriba [voir ʿĀrab, Ḏj̲azīrat al-, VI]. D’après la tradition arabe postérieure. Ḏj̲urhum descendait de Yaḳṭān(Ḳaḥṭān). La tribu émigra du Yémen à la Mekke et, après une longue lutte avec une autre tribu, Ḳatūrāʾ (également désignée sous le nom de ʿAmālīḳ), commandée par al-Sumaydaʿ, les Ḏj̲urhum, sous le commandement de leur chef (appelé Muḍāḍ b. ʿAmr, al-Ḥārit̲h̲ b. Muḍāḍ, etc.), établirent leur autorité sur la Kaʿba et la conservèrent jusqu’au mo…

, la première épouse du Prophète, était la fille de Ḵh̲uwaylid. du clan mekkois des Asad de Ḳurays̲h̲. Avant son mariage avec Muḥammad, elle avait eu deux maris, Abū Hāla al-Tamīmī, client du clan mekkois des ʿAbd al-Dār, et ʿUtayyiḳ/ʿAtīḳ b. ʿĀʾid̲h̲ (ʿĀbid est incorrect) b. ʿAbd Allāh du clan également mekkois des Mak̲h̲zūm; l’ordre de ces mariages est discuté, et il en est de même de l’ ism et de la généalogie d’Abū Hāla. A ce dernier, elle aurait donné deux fils portant les noms, généralement féminins, de Hind et Hāla, et à ʿUtayyiḳ, une fille, Hind. Elle di…

, une des deux tribus principales de Médine; avec l’autre, al-Aws [ q.v.], elle constituait les Banū Ḳayla de l’époque préislamique et les Anṣār [ q.v.] ou les auxiliaires (de Muḥammad) sous l’Islam. On trouvera la nomenclature des ancêtres d’al-Ḵh̲azrad̲j̲ sous al-Aws; voici les principales subdivisions de la tribu: Les deux tribus s’étaient établies ensemble à Yat̲h̲rib après avoir quitté le Yémen, et, pendant un certain temps, elles avaient été soumises aux Juifs qui s’y trouvaient. Le chef qui mit fin à cette soumission se nommait Mālik b.…

, grandpère paternel de Muḥammad. Lors de son passage à Médine au cours d’un voyage commercial en Syrie, Hās̲h̲im b.ʿAbd Manāf épousa Salmā bint ʿAmr, du clan Ḵh̲azrad̲j̲ite de ʿAdī b. al-Nad̲j̲d̲j̲ār. Il en eut deux enfants, ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib (ou S̲h̲ayba) et Ruḳayya. La mère et le fils demeurèrent au domicile maternel, à Médine; telle semble avoir été la coutume dans la famille de Salmā, en conformité avec des pratiques matriarcales. Quelque temps ¶ après la mort de Hās̲h̲im, son frère al-Muṭṭalib tenta de renforcer sa situation, qui se gâtait à la Mekke, en faisant…

, Abū Bakr Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan b. Fūrak al-Anṣārī al-Iṣbahānī, théologien et traditionniste as̲h̲ʿarite, naquit vers 330/941, peut-être à Ispahan. Il étudia le kalām as̲h̲ʿarite au ʿIrāḳ, à Baṣra et à Bag̲h̲dād, sous la direction d’Abū l-Ḥasan al-Bāhilī, en même temps qu’al-Bāḳillāni [ q.v.] et al-Isfarāyīnī [ q.v.], ainsi que les traditions avec ʿAbd Allāh b. Ḏj̲aʿfar al-Iṣbahānī. Il quitta le ʿIrāḳ pour Rayy, puis pour Nīs̲h̲āpūr, où une madrasa fut construite pour lui près de la k̲h̲ānḳāh du Ṣūfī al-Būs̲h̲and̲j̲ī; il se trouvait à Nīs̲h̲āpūr avant la mort du Ṣūfī Abū…

b. Kaʿb al-ʿAnsī, de la tribu de Mad̲h̲ḥid̲j̲. chef de la première ridda au Yaman. Son vrai nom aurait été ʿAyhala ou ʿAbhala; on l’appelait aussi Ḏh̲ū l-k̲h̲imār. «l’homme voilé» (ou Ḏh̲ū l-ḥimār, «l’homme à l’âne»). Après le ¶ meurtre de Ḵh̲usraw II Parvīz (ar. Abarwīz) en 628, mais peut-être pas avant la prise de la Mekke en 630, les Persans du Yaman, sous Bād̲h̲ām (ou Bād̲h̲ān). conclurent une alliance avec Muḥammad, car ils avaient compris qu’ils ne pourraient plus obtenir d’aide de la Perse. Les sources arabes ajoutent qu’ils …

(a.), croyance; mais parfois aussi doctrine, dogme ou article de foi; de là ʿ aḳāʾid (pl.), articles de foi, est aussi employé dans le sens de «foi». 1. Développement et emploi du mot. Les documents auxquels sont appliqués les termes de ʿ aḳīda ou ʿ aḳāʾid sont de longueur variable, et les plus longs se distinguent difficilement des traités généraux de théologie (ex: al-ʿAḳīda al-Niẓāmiyya d’al-Djuwaynī). Ces termes, cependant, peuvent être utilement pris dans le sens de textes dont le but principal est de formuler une doctrine ou un dogme, et non pas de pré…

, des Banū Asad b. Ḵh̲uzayma, allié ( ḥalīf) des Banū Umayya de Ḳurays̲h̲. Sa mère était Umayma bint ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib, tante de Muḥammad. L’un des premiers croyants ainsi que ses frères, ʿUbayd Allāh et Abū Aḥmad, il prit part avec le premier à l’émigration en Abyssinie. ʿUbayd Allāh devint chrétien et mourut sur place, mais ʿAbd Allah revint à la Mekke et fut le personnage le plus important d’un groupe de confédérés, comprenant sa sœur Zaynab [ q.v.], qui tous émigrèrent à Médine. Il mena le raid très critiqué de Nak̲h̲la où des Musulmans, pour la première fois, versèren…

, Abū Muḥammad ʿAbd al-Malik, savant très connu pour son ouvrage sur la biographie de Muḥammad; sa famille, qui passe pour être d’origine ḥimyarite, avait émigré de Baṣra en Égypte où il naquit et passa sa vie. Sa connaissance des généalogies et de la grammaire était remarquable; il mourut en Égypte le 13 rabīʿ II 218/8 mai 833 ou en 213/828. Son Kitāb al-Tīd̲j̲ān sur les antiquités de l’Arabie du Sud existe encore, mais sa renommée provient surtout de son édition de la Sīra (Vie de Muḥammad) d’Ibn Isḥāḳ [ q.v.] qui est devenue l’ouvrage fondamental sur la matière. La Sīra d’Ibn Isḥāḳ n’existe…

, «le plus convenable ou opportun», terme employé par les théologiens dans un sens technique. Les «partisans de l’ aṣlaḥ» étaient un groupe de Muʿtazilites qui soutenaient que Dieu a fait ce qui est le meilleur pour l’humanité, mais la liste des membres de ce groupe n’est indiquée nulle part. Abū l-Hud̲h̲ayl soutenait que Dieu a agi pour le mieux dans l’intérêt des hommes; al-Naẓẓām introduisit la nuance selon laquelle il y avait un nombre infini d’alternatives également bonnes parmi lesquelles Dieu pouvait en cho…

, nourrice du Prophète Muḥammad. Elle et son mari appartenaient à la tribu des Saʿd b. Bakr, fraction des Hawāzin. Muḥammad lui fut confié peu après sa naissance, et elle l’allaita jusqu’à l’âge de deux ans, car les familles aisées estimaient que la vie au désert était plus saine pour leurs enfants que celle de la Mekke. Certains savants modernes mettent en doute la totalité de l’épisode, mais Muḥammad vécut probablement avec cette tribu pendant un certain temps. Après la bataille de Ḥunayn, il …

, ancienne secte, fréquemment mentionnée, mais quelque peu mystérieuse. On ne connaît aucun nom des membres de la secte, en dehors du fondateur présumé Ḏj̲ahm [ q.v.]. Le tait fondamental est que: «après la traduction des ouvrages grecs au deuxième siècle, une doctrine ( maḳāla) — connue comme étant celle des Ḏj̲ahmiyya — fut répandue par Bis̲h̲r b. G̲h̲iyāt̲h̲ al-Marīsī [ q.v.] et sa génération» (Ibn Taymiyya, ʿAḳīda Ḥamawiyya, ap. M. Schreiner, dans ZDMG, LIII, 72 sq., LII, 544). Un disciple d’Abū Yūsuf (m. 182/798), Bis̲h̲r (m. 218/833 ou un peu plus tard), fut in…

(latinisé sous la forme hegira), émigration de Muḥammad de la Mekke à Médine en septembre 622. La première forme du verbe, had̲j̲ara, signifie «rompre une association amicale avec quelqu’un» (cf. Ḳurʾān, IV, 34/38) ou «éviter l’association avec quelqu’un» (LXXIII, 10); le sens comporte souvent une référence explicite ou implicite à un rapport sexuel, comme dans le premier texte ḳurʾānique. La troisième forme hād̲j̲ara désigne l’action de mettre fin par consentement mutuel à des relations amicales; donc hid̲j̲ra ne signifie pas à proprement parler «fuite», comme on a tra…

, adversaire de Muḥammad à Médine. Rangé dans le clan des Banū l-Naḍīr auquel appartenait sa mère, bien que son père ait été un Arabe de la fraction des Nabhān (Ṭayyiʾ), il avait probablement, suivant la coutume juive, reçu la religion de sa mère, mais il est douteux qu’il ait été un docteur, comme le laisserait croire l’expression sayyid al-aḥbār qu’on trouve dans un poème (Ibn His̲h̲ām, 659, l. 12), à supposer que ce texte lui-même soit authentique. Irrité de la mort de nombreux Mekkois à Badr, il se rendit à La Mekke et mit en œuvre ses immenses dons poétiques (il est qualifié de faḥl faṣīḥ dans …

, fils de ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib b. Hās̲h̲im et de Fāṭima bint ʿAmr (des Mak̲h̲zūm) et frère germain du père de Muḥammad. Son nom était ʿAbd Manāf. On prétend qu’il hérita de son père les offices de la siḳāya et de la rifāda (approvisionnement des pèlerins en eau et en vivres), mais au ḥilf al-fuḍūl et à la bataille des fid̲j̲ār, son frère al-Zubayr semble avoir été le chef des Ḥās̲h̲im. Il s’endetta, et pour honorer sa dette transmit la siḳāya et la rifāda à al-ʿAbbās. Néanmoins, il semble être demeuré le chef du clan des Hās̲h̲im, et le quartier qu’ils occupaient dans la ville fut appelé le s̲h̲iʿb d’Abū…

, ancienne tribu arabe dépendant des Bakr b. Wāʾil [ q.v.] et placée au même niveau que les T̲h̲āʿlaba et les ʿId̲j̲l. Les principales subdivisions étaient: al-Dūl (ou al-Duʾil), ʿAdī, ʿĀmir, Suḥaym. La tribu était partie nomade, partie agricole (palmiers et céréales) et aussi mi-païenne, mi-chrétienne. La ville d’al-Had̲j̲r, capitale de la Yamāma, lui appartenait en grande partie, ainsi que celle de Ḏj̲aww (plus tard al-Ḵh̲iḍrima). Les autres localités mentionnées comme leur appartenant (ou principalemen…

, l’Isaac biblique, dont il est fait mention dans quinze passage du Ḳurʾān. Dieu annonce à Abraham « la venue d’Isaac, prophète parmi les saints» et II les bénit tous deux (XXXVII, 112 sq.). Dans un texte plus important, lorsque les messagers ayant trait à Loth vinrent vers Abraham, sa femme « rit... et nous lui annonçâmes Isaac et, après lui, Jacob» (XI, 71/74), et il est expliqué que cela arrivera malgré leur âge avancé. Plusieurs versets parlent d’Isaac et de Jacob donnés à Abraham (VI, 84, X…

, Abū ʿAbd Allāh ou Abū ʿAbd al-Raḥmān, l’un des poètes défenseurs de Muḥammad. Anṣārī du clan de Salima de la tribu d’al-Ḵh̲azrad̲j̲ [voir al-Anṣār], il naquit probablement ¶ avant 600 de l’ère chrétienne puisqu’il aurait pris part à la lutte intestine qui eut lieu à Médine avant l’hégire et qu’il assista à la seconde ʿAḳaba [ q.v.], lors du serment d’allégeance à Muḥammad. Il n’était pas présent à Badr, mais il prit part à presque toutes les expéditions postérieures menées par Muḥammad; à Uḥud, il fut atteint de plusieurs blessures et, le premier, i…

, nom d’une tribu et d’une localité. I. Les poèmes arabes anciens font mention en divers endroits (plus d’une douzaine d’attestations dans J. Horovitz, Koranische Untersuchungen, Berlin 1926, 89 sq.) d’une tribu d’Arabie appelée Iram et le plus souvent citée avec les ʿĀdites, mais parfois aussi avec les T̲h̲amūdites, les Ḥimyarites, etc.; elle aurait été anéantie par un homme nommé Ḳudār al-Aḥmar (Uḥaymir). Dans sa Muʿallaḳa (68), al-Ḥārit̲h̲ b. Ḥilliza emploie l’ad̲j̲ectif irāmī dans le sens d’«homme d’une race antique» (cf. al-Tibrīzī, ad loc). Lorsque les savants musulmans s…

, tribu de l’Arabie du Nord, considérée comme une partie des Ḏh̲ubyān qui faisaient eux-mêmes partie des G̲h̲aṭafān [ q.v.]. Ses principaux terrains de parcours se trouvaient dans le Wādī l-Rumma au Nad̲j̲d, et les noms de plusieurs localités associées à cette tribu ont été conservés (cf. Yāḳūt, index, s.v. Fazāra). Dans la Ḏj̲āhiliyya, la célèbre guerre de Dāḥis entre les ʿAbs et les Ḏh̲ubyān fut suscitée par un pari entre Ḳays b. Zuhayr, chef des ʿAbs, et Ḥud̲h̲ayfa b. Badr, chef des Fazāra, au sujet de leurs ch…

, temps, spécialement le temps indéfiniment étendu (cf. Lane; al-Bayḍāwī, sur Ḳurʾān LXXVI, 1). Les Arabes pré-islamiques, comme le montrent de nombreux passages de leur poésie, considéraient le temps (aussi zamān, et al-ayyām «jours») comme la source de ce qui arrivait à l’homme, bon ou mauvais; ils lui donnaient donc un peu le sens de destin, mais sans lui rendre un culte (W. L. Schrameier, Über den Fatalĭşmus der vorislamischen Araber, Bonn 1881; ¶ Th. Nöldeke, dans Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, I, 661 b; pour des parallèles possibles, cf. A. Christensen, Iran, 149 sq., 157:…