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, a collection of poetry or prose [see ʿarabiyya ; persian literature ; turkish literature ; urdū literature and s̲h̲iʿr ], a register, or an office. Sources differ about linguistic roots. Some ascribe to it a Persian origin from dev , ‘mad’ or ‘devil’, to describe secretaries. Others consider it Arabic from dawwana , to collect or to register, thus meaning a collection of records or sheets. (See Ḳalḳas̲h̲andī, Ṣubḥ , i, 90; LA, xvii, 23-4; Ṣūlī, Adab al-kuttāb , 187; Māwardī, al-Aḥkām al-sulṭāniyya , 175; D̲j̲ahs̲h̲iyārī, Wuzarāʾ , ¶ 16-17; cf.

(a.), two terms of mediaeval Islamic finance and land tenure. The first denotes special items consisting of immoveable property selected from booty by the leader [see fayʾ and g̲h̲anīma ], while the second is the term for land which the Imām selects from the conquered territories for the treasury with the consent of those who had a share in the booty (al-Māwardī, al-Aḥkām al-sulṭāniyya , Cairo 1966, 192). In pre-Islamic Arabia the leader was also entitled to one-fourth ( rubʿ ) or onefifth ( k̲h̲ums ) of the booty in addition to the ṣafī . The custom of k̲h̲ums was upheld by the prophet and …

(a.), nationalism. 1. In the Arab world east of the Mag̲h̲rib. The term derives from ḳawm , a term of tribal provenance used to denote a group of people having or claiming a common ancestor, or a tribe descended from a single ancestor. One’s ḳawm is simply one’s people, either genealogically determined or mythologically and folklorishly depicted. In this century, ḳawmiyya refers to the movement of nationalism among the Arabs of the Ottoman dominions in the Fertile Crescent that were conquered by the Allies in the Great War. The use …

(a.) “water”. The present article covers the religio-magical and the Islamic legal aspects of water, together with irrigation techniques, as follows: 1. Hydromancy A a vehicle for the sacred, water has been employed for various techniques of divination, and in particular, for potamonancy (sc. divination by means of the colour of the waters of a river and their ebbing and flowing; cf. FY. Cumont, Études syriennes , Paris 1917, 250 ff., notably on the purification power of the Euphrates, consulted for divinatory reasons); for pegomancy (sc…

, the third ruler of the Ḳād̲j̲ār dynasty [ q.v.], was born on 5 January 1808. He succeeded to the throne in 1834 on the death of his grandfather Fatḥ ʿAlī S̲h̲āh [ q.v.]. He was the eldest ¶ son of ʿAbbās Mīrzā [ q.v.]. His mother was the daughter of Muḥammad K̲h̲ān Beglarbegi Ḳād̲j̲ār Develu. He had two full brothers, Ḳahramān Mīrzā and Bahman Mīrzā and twenty-three half-brothers. He died on 6 S̲h̲awwāl 1264/4 September 1848 and was buried at Ḳum. His chief wife, the mother of Nāṣir al-Dīn S̲h̲āh [ q.v.], was Malik D̲j̲ahān K̲h̲ānum, whose father was Muḥammad Ḳāsim K̲h̲ān Ẓahīr al-Da…

, the second ruler of the Ḳād̲j̲ār [ q.v.] dynasty, was born in 1185/1771 and bore the name Bābā K̲h̲ān. He was made governor of Fārs, Kirmān, and Yazd by his uncle, Āḳā Muḥammad K̲h̲ān, and heir apparent in 1211/1796-7. He succeeded to the throne in 1212/1797. He died in 1250/18 34 and was buried at Ḳumm. Much of his reign of 38 years and 5 months was spent in military expeditions against internal rebels and external foes. On the assassination of Aḳā Muḥammad K̲h̲ān in 1212/1797 Bābā K̲h̲ān hastened fr…

i.—Geography The geological background: The alignments of Iran’s principal topographie features, represented by the Kūhhā-yi Alburz and the Zagros Chain, are west to east and north-west to south-east, respectively. In broad context, the Alburz is a continuation of the European Alpine structures, while the Zagros chain has been linked through Cyprus with the Dinaric Alps (Fisher, 1956). The structure of the mountain rim of the country has been influenced strongly by tectonic movements which have n…

(in Arabic Iṣbahān), a town and province in Persia, whose name, according to Hamza al-Iṣfahānī, means “the armies” (Māfarruk̲h̲ī, Kitāb Maḥāsin Iṣfahān , ed. Sayyid D̲j̲alāl al-Dīn Tihrāni, Tehran n.d., 5-6). 1. history The province, whose precise boundaries have varied at different times, is bounded on the north-east and east by the central desert. In the south-east by Yazd and Fārs, in the south and south-west by the Bak̲h̲tiyārī mountains, with peaks rising to over 11,000 ft., in the north-west by Luristān, Kazzāz, Kamara, a…

, arabicized form of dehkān , the head of a village and a member of the lesser feudal nobility of Sāsānian Persia. The power of the dihḳāns derived from their hereditary title to the local administration. They were an immensely important class, although the actual area of land they cultivated as the hereditary possession of their family was often small. They were the representatives of the government vis-à-vis the peasants and their principal function was to collect taxes; and, in the opinion of Chr…

, Muḥammad b. Asʿad D̲j̲alāl al-Dīn , was born in 830/1427 at Dawān in the district of Kāzarūn, where his father was Ḳāḍī; he claimed descent from the Caliph Abū Bakr whence his nisba al-Ṣiddīḳī. He studied with his father and then went to S̲h̲īrāz where he was a pupil of Mawlānā Muḥyī ’l-Dīn Gūs̲h̲a Kinārī and Mawlānā Humām al-Dīn Gulbārī and Ṣafī al-Dīn Īd̲j̲ī. He held the office of Ṣadr under Yūsuf b. D̲j̲ahāns̲h̲āh, the Ḳarā Ḳoyūnlū, and after resigning this office became Mudarris of the Begum Madrasa, also known as the Dār al-Aytām . Under the Āḳ Ḳoyūnlū he beca…

The term īlāt (pl. of īl ), first used in Persian in Ilk̲h̲ānid times, denotes nomadic or semi-nomadic tribes. ʿAs̲h̲āʾir , ḳabāʾil and tawāʾif ¶ are also used in this sense, and for tribes generally, whether strictly speaking nomadic or not. The combination īlāt wa ʿas̲h̲āʾir is a phrase frequently encountered in both medieval and modern times, and suggests that the two terms are broadly synonymous. In medieval times īlāt also occurs in conjunction with ulūs , i.e. tribal followers, and oymaḳ . From early times the population of many parts of Persia has derived its living fro…

(a., sing, mawkib ), processions. 1. Under the ʿAbbāsids and Fāṭimids The basic meaning of procession (mounted or unmounted), cortège, is found in ḥadīt̲h̲ (al-Buk̲h̲ārī. Badʾ al-k̲h̲alḳ , 6; Ibn Ḥanbal, iii, 213; al-Dārimī, 2695). This is the precise sense given in the dictionaries, and that used by the Umayyads, ʿAbbāsids and Fāṭimids, often to describe the cortège of an amīr , wazīr , or other official (see, e.g., al-Ṭabarī, ii, 1731; Hilāl al-Ṣābī, Rusūm dār al-k̲h̲ilāfa , 9-10, 12, 14ff.). By the 4th/10th century, it had acquired the broader meaning of audience as well …

, municipality, the term used in Turkish ( belediye ), Arabic, and other Islamic languages, to denote modern municipal institutions of European type, as against earlier Islamic forms of urban organisation [see madīna ]. The term, like so many modern Islamic neologisms and the innovations they express, first appeared in Turkey, where Western-style municipal institutions and services were introduced as part of the general reform programme of the Tanẓīmāt [ q.v.]. (1) turkey. The first approaches towards modern municipal administration seems to have been made by Sultan …

, in modern Arabic constitution. A word of Persian origin, it seems originally to have meant a person exercising authority, whether religious or political, and was later specialized to designate members of the Zoroastrian priesthood. It occurs in Kalīla wa-Dimna in the sense of “counsellor”, and recurs with the same sense, at a much later date, in the phrase Dustūr-i mükerrem , one of the honorific titles of the Grand Vizier in the Ottoman Empire. More commonly, dustūr was used in the sense of “rule” or “regulation”, and in particular the code of ru…

(Pers. kalān , “big, great”) is used in the 8th/14th and 9th/15th centuries to mean “leader” (cf. Ḥāfiẓ Abrū, Cinq opuscules de Ḥāfiẓ-i Abrū concernant l’histoire de l’Iran au temps de Tamerlan , ed. F. Tauer, Prague 1959, 7; Muʿīn al-Dīn Natanzī, Muntak̲h̲ab al-tawārīk̲h̲-i muʿīnī , ed. J. Aubin, Tehran 1957, 257, 258, 261), and occurs especially with reference to the tribal and military classes. The phrase īl va ulūs va kalāntarān va sar k̲h̲aylān va aʿrāb va aḥs̲h̲ām va farīḳ-i Balūč is found in a document dated 874/1470 issued by Uzun Ḥasan for the ¶ government of K̲h̲urāsān and Trans…

, in modern Arabic “government”. Like many political neologisms in Islamic languages, the word seems to have been first used in its modern sense in 19th century Turkey, and to have passed from Turkish into Arabic and other languages. Ḥukūma comes from the Arabic root ḥ.k.m , with the meaning “to judge, adjudicate” (cf. the related meaning, dominant in Hebrew and other Semitic languages, of wisdom. See ḥikma ). In classical usage the verbal noun ḥukūma means the act or office of adjudication, of dispensing justice, whether by a sovereign, a judge, …

(p.) as a general term designates a present, usually from an inferior to a superior. As a technical term it denotes a “regular” tax ( pīs̲h̲kas̲h̲-i mustamarrī ) and an ad hoc tax levied by rulers on provincial governors and others, and an ad hoc impost laid by governors and officials in positions of power on the population under their control. The offering of presents to rulers and others was known from early times (cf. Abu ’l-Faḍl Bayhaḳī, Tārīk̲h̲-i Bayhaḳī , ed. A.A. Fayyāḍ, Mas̲h̲had 1350 s̲h̲ /1971, 655, 679, 705, 734-5, 789, 815). With the proliferatio…

, Naḳāra-K̲h̲āna (p.), kind of military band. The origins of the naḳḳāra-k̲h̲āna , so-called after the naḳḳāra or kettle-drum, which was one of the instruments of the military band belonging to rulers and military leaders, are obscure. There are references to it from an early period when it appears to have been synonymous with the ṭabl-k̲h̲āna [ q.v.]. Originally, its purpose was probably military and it retained this function in the Persian army until modern times. It also had ceremonial functions and these tended in the course of time to overshadow …

b. muḥammad al-kās̲h̲ānī , s̲h̲araf al-dīn abū naṣr , was treasurer and ʿāriḍ al-d̲j̲ays̲h̲ to the Sald̲j̲ūḳ sultan, Muḥammad b. Maliks̲h̲āh. After being succeeded by S̲h̲ams al-Mulk b. Niẓām al-Mulk as ʿāriḍ al-d̲j̲ays̲h̲ he went to Bag̲h̲dād. He was imprisoned during the reign of Maḥmūd b. Maliks̲h̲āh for a short period but subsequently appointed wazīr by Maḥmūd (521/1127-522/1128). From 526/1132-528/1134 he was wazīr to the caliph, al-Mustars̲h̲id. In 529/1134 he became wazīr to Masʿūd b. Muḥammad and held office until 530/1135-6. He died in Bag̲h̲dād in 533/113…

, commercial privileges, capitulations. i. The earliest documentary evidence for commercial privileges emanating from Muslim chanceries in the Mediterranean world dates from the 6th/12th century. While it is unlikely that these documents represent the earliest manifestation of that diplomatic and commercial activity between rulers of Islam and Christendom which culminated in the Ottoman Capitulations, it is probably useless to speculate upon either the form or the language of chancery instruments bef…

(a.), an administrative-military term in the mediaeval eastern Islamic world. From the end of the 3rd/9th century, the term, which in a general sense meant a body of armed men, sufficing for the guarding and control of a town or district on the part of the sultan, is occasionally found in the specific sense of the s̲h̲urṭa [ q.v.] (Tyan, L’organisation judicaire en pays d’Islam , Paris 1938-43, ii, 366, n. 5). As the designation for a military governor of a town or province, the term s̲h̲iḥna belongs primarily to the period of the Great Sald̲j̲ūḳs, though Ab…

, a town and district north-west of Tehran and south of Gīlān. The town is situated in 36° 15 N. and 50° E., at a height of 4,165 ft. above sea level, about 90 miles from Tehran, on the edge of a wide alluvial plain with mountains about five miles to the north. It stands on the site of an ancient city built by S̲h̲āpūr II, which according to tradition was in turn on the site of a city built by S̲h̲āpūr b. Ardas̲h̲īr (Ḥamd Allāh Mustawfī, Taʾrīk̲h̲-i guzīda , ed. E. G. Browne and R. A. Nicholson, 1910-13, 830, French tr. Barbier de Meynard, Description historique de la ville de Kazvin , in JA (1857)). Its po…

(a.), pasture. 1. In nomadic Arab life. The word marʿā is used only twice in the Ḳurʾān, where it has the purpose of praising the divine power (LXXIX, 31, and LXXXVII,4). In ḥadīt̲h̲ there are also two uses of this substantive to be noted (cf. Wensinck, Concordance ); one of them touches incidentally on the problem of the exploitation of pastures, but ḥadīt̲h̲ is more explicit with reference to kalaʾ , dry and green forage. In fact, a tradition asserts that “the Muslims are united ( s̲h̲urakāʾ ) in three things: water, forage and fire”; it is the principle of…

(a), official court ceremonies, both processional and non-processional. The whole range of ceremonial, including protocol and etiquette, is called also rusūm other terms found frequently are mawsim [ q.v.] and mawkib . Mawākib [ q.v.] refer specifically to solemn processions, but seem also to have had the more general meaning of audiences (for the ʿAbbāsids, see references in D. Sourdel, Le vizirat ʿabbāside de 749 à 946, Damascus 1960, ii, 684, n. 3; for the Fāṭimids, see e.g. al-Ḳalḳas̲h̲andī, Ṣubḥ , iii, 494: d̲j̲ulūs [ al-k̲h̲alīfa ] fi ’l-mawākib; ayyām al-mawākib ). 1. Under the …

(a) Woman. 1. In the Arab world. For a long time, the problem of woman has been avoided or dealt with only partially or in a biased way, but now a general twinge of conscience has brought it to the focus of our attention. Not just one but many different problems confront the Arab woman and affect how she is seen by society. There is the legal aspect, defining the precise relationship between divine and human law; there is the collection of “distorted pictures” (the expression used by Etiemble ¶ with which literature in particular presents the “myth” of woman; and there is feminine b…

, a town and province in western Persia. The province is situated between lat. 34° N. and 35° N. long. 44° 5′ to 48° 0′ E. It lies to the east and north of ʿIrāḳ and Lurīstān-i Kūčik (or Pus̲h̲t-i Kūh) and to the south and west of Kurdistān and Asadābād. In the early 20th century the province was divided into nineteen bulūks . These were Bālādih, Wastām, Miyān Darband or Bīlawar, Pus̲h̲t-i Darband or Bālā Darband, Dīnawar, Kuliyāʾī Saḥna, Kanguwār, Asadābād, Harsīn, Čamčamāl, Durū Faramān, Māhīdas̲h̲t, Hārūnābād, Gūrān, ¶ Kirind, Zuhāb, Aywān and Hulaylān (Gove…

, agriculture. Falḥ , the act of cleaving and cutting, when applied to the soil has the meaning of “to break up in order to cultivate”, or “to plough”. Fallāḥ “ploughman”, filāḥa “ploughing”. But from pre-Islamic times the word filāḥa has assumed a wider meaning to denote the occupation of husbandry, agriculture. In this sense it is synonymous with zirāʿa , to which the ancients preferred filāḥa (all the earlier writers called their works on agriculture Kitāb al-Filāḥa ). At the present time this latter word is very widely used in North Africa, both …

( kačar “marching quickly”, cf. Sulaymān Efendī, Lug̲h̲at-i Čag̲h̲atai , Istanbul 1298, 214; P. Pelliot, Notes sur l’histoire de la horde d’or, Paris 1950, 203-4), a Turcoman tribe, to which the Ḳād̲j̲ār dynasty of Persia belonged; also a village in the Lītkūh district of Āmul [ q.v.]. Nineteenth century Persian historians assert that the Ḳād̲j̲ār took their name from Ḳād̲j̲ār Noyān b. Sirtāḳ Noyān. The latter was the son of Sābā Noyān b. D̲j̲alāʾir, and was appointed atabeg [ q.v.] to Arg̲h̲ūn (Riḍā Ḳulī K̲h̲ān Hidāyat, Tāʾrīk̲h̲-i rawḍat al-ṣafā-yi nāṣirī , Te…

is used to designate both the descendant of a S̲h̲īʿī imām and the shrine of such a person (with which this article is mainly concerned). The imāmzādagān are thus sayyids [ q.v.], but all sayyids are not accorded the title of imāmzāda . In common usage it is given to the sons and grandsons of the imāms, but excluding those who themselves became imāms, and also to those of their descendants distinguished by special sanctity or by suffering martyrdom. It is not normally accorded to the female descendants of the imāms. The lives of many of the imāmzādagān are recorded in biographical and hagio…

, Persian statesman, was the third son of Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī Hās̲h̲im, the headman, or kadk̲h̲udā-bās̲h̲ī , of the Ḥaydarīk̲h̲āna quarters of S̲h̲īrāz in the reign of Nādir S̲h̲āh. His ancestors were said to have been converts to Islam from Judaism. One of them emigrated from Ḳazwīn to Iṣfahān and is said to have married into the family of Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī Qawām al-Dīn S̲h̲īrāzī. Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī Maḥmūd ʿAlī, Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī Ibrāhīm’s grandfather, was a wealthy merchant of S̲h̲īrāz. After the death of Mīrzā Muḥammad, the kalāntar of S̲h̲īrāz in 1200/1786, D̲j̲aʿfar K̲h̲ān Zand made Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī Ibrāhīm kal…

, ville et province de la Perse occidentale. La province s’étend entre 34° et 35° N., 44° 5′ et 48° E., à l’Est et au Nord du ʿIrāḳ et du Luristān-i Kūčik (ou Pus̲h̲t-i Kūh), au Sud et à l’Ouest du Kurdistān et d’Asadābād; au début du XXe siècle, elle a été divisée en 19 bulūks: Bālādih, Wastām, Miyān Darband ou Bīlawar, Pus̲h̲t-i (ou Balā) Darband, Dīnawar, Kuliyāʾī, Saḥnih, Kangawar, Asadābād, Harsīn, Čamčamāl, Durū Faramān, Māhīdas̲h̲t, Hārūnābād, Gūrān, Kirind, Zuhāb, Aywān et Hulaylān ( Gazetteer of Persia, II, Simla 1914, 358). Aujourd’hui, elle est limitée par Sanandad̲j̲ …

, Muḥammad b. Asʿad Ḏjalāl al-dīn, commentateur et auteur d’ouvrages de dogmatique, de mystique et de philosophie en persan et en arabe, né en 830/1427 à Dawān, dans le district de Kāzarūn, où son père était ḳāḍī; il prétendait descendre du calife Abū Bakr, d’où sa nisba d’al-Ṣiddīḳī. Il fit ses études avec son père, puis alla à S̲h̲īrāz où il fut l’élève de Mawlāna Muḥyī l-dīn Gūs̲h̲a Kinārī, Mawlānā Humām al-dīn Gulbārī et Ṣafī al-dīn Īd̲j̲ī. Il occupa les fonctions de ṣadr sous le Ḳara Ḳuyūnlū Yūsuf b. Ḏj̲ahāns̲h̲āh puis, après avoir démissonné, devint mudarris à la Begam Madrasa, égal…

, troisième souverain de la dynastie des Ḳād̲j̲ār [ q.v.]. Né le 5 janvier 1808, il était le fils aîné de ʿAbbās Mīrzā [ q.v.], et sa mère était la fille de Muḥammad Ḵh̲ān Beglarbegi Ḳād̲j̲ār De velu. Son père confia son éducation à Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī Mīrzā Āḳāsī, un Ṣūfī de la confrérie de Nūr ʿAlī S̲h̲ah (Huma Nāṭiḳ, Īrān dar rāhyābī-yi farhangī, Londres 1988, 12-13), qui exerça sur lui une forte influence, même après qu’il fut monté sur le trône en 1834 à la mort de son grand-père Fatḥ ʿAlī S̲h̲āh [ q.v.]. Il avait appris le français auprès d’une Française à la cour de ʿAbbās Mīrzā, et, à …

(P. kalān, grand), terme utilisé aux VIIIe et IXe/XIVe-XVe siècles dans le sens de chef (cf. Ḥāfiẓ Abrū, Cinq opuscules de Ḥāfiẓ-i Abrū concernant l’histoire de l’Iran au temps de Tamerlan, éd. F. Tauer, Prague 1959; Muʿīn al-dīn Natanzī, Muntak̲h̲ab al-tawārīk̲h̲-i muʿīnī, éd. J. Aubin, Téhéran 1957, 257, 258, 261), et usité plus particulièrement pour les classes tribales et militaires. On trouve dans un document de 874/1470, émanant d’Uzun Ḥasan, pour le gouvernement du Ḵh̲urāsān et de la Transoxiane, la phrase suivante: īl va ulūs va kalāntarān va sar k̲h̲aylān va aʿrāb va…

, en arabe moderne, «gouvernement». Comme beaucoup de néologismes politiques des langues islamiques, le mot semble avoir, dans son sens moderne, été d’abord employé dans la Turquie du XIXe siècle et avoir passé du turc en arabe et dans les autres langues. Ḥukūma vient de la racine arabe h.k.m. avec le sens de «juger, adjuger» (cf. sens connexe, qui domine en hébreu et dans d’autres langues sémitiques, de sagesse [voir Ḥikma]). Dans l’usage classique, le nom verbal ḥukūma signifie l’acte ou la fonction de dispenser, de rendre la justice, que ce soit par un souverain, un j…

(a.) «la femme». I. — Monde arabe. Longtemps éludé ou traité partiellement et partialement, le problème de la femme est actuellement l’objet d’une prise de conscience générale. Or, plutôt qu’un problème, ce sont des problèmes pluriels et complexes qui se posent, pour la femme arabe, selon le point de vue où se place l’observateur; il y a le point de vue légal, sous l’angle précis des rapports entre loi divine et loi humaine; il y a l’ensemble des «images déformées» qui, selon l’expression d’Étiemble, c…

(a.) «tribunal». Le présent article est consacré à l’administration de la justice et à l’organisation des tribunaux dans les pays musulmans, la fonction de juge ayant été traitée sous Ḳāḍī. I. — Généralités II. — Empire ottoman 1. — Jusqu’aux réformes 2. — Période des réformes III. — Iran IV. — Pays arabes et Israël à l’époque moderne 1. — Égypte 2. — Syrie 3. — Liban 4. — Irak 5. — Palestine et Israël 6. — Jordanie 7. — Arabie Saʿūdite 8. — Yémen et République populaire du Sud Yémen 9. — États du Golfe 10. — Maroc 11. — Algérie 12. — Tunisie 13. — Réformes du droit appliquées par les tribunaux du s̲h̲arʿ V. …

( kačar «qui marche rapidement», cf. Sulaymān Efendī, Lug̲h̲at-i Čag̲h̲atay, Istanbul 1298, 214; P. Pelliot, Notes sur l’histoire de la Horde d’or, Paris 1950, 203-4), tribu turcomane à laquelle appartenait la dynastie persane des Ḳād̲j̲ārs; c’est également le nom d’un village du district de Lītkūh dans la région d’Āmul [ q.v.]. Les historiens persans du XIXe siècle affirment que les Ḳād̲j̲ārs doivent leur nom à Ḳād̲j̲ār Noyān b. Sirtāḳ Noyān; ce dernier, fils de Sābā Noyān b. Ḏj̲alāʾir, fut nommé atabeg [ q.v.] d’Arg̲h̲ūn (Riḍā Ḳulī Ḵh̲ān Hidāyat, Taʾrīk̲h̲-i rawḍat al-ṣafā-yi nāṣ…

désigne, en arabe moderne, une Constitution. Ce terme d’origine persane semble avoir désigné à l’origine une personne exerçant une autorité, religieuse ou politique, avant d’être spécialement appliqué aux membres du clergé zoroastrien. Il apparaît dans Kalīla wa-Dimna avec le sens de «conseiller» et reparaît avec la même acception, à une date bien postérieure, dans l’expression Dustūr-i mükerrem, l’un des titres honorifiques du grand-vizir de l’empire ottoman. Plus communément, dustūr était employé avec le sens de «règle» ou «règlement» et désignait en particuli…

, autrefois nom d’un district à l’Ouest de Nīs̲h̲āpūr, dans le Ḵh̲urāsān. A l’époque des Ṭāhirides, il comptait 390 villages, représentant une imposition d’environ 236 000 dirhams. Les principales villes étaient Sabzawār et Ḵh̲usrawd̲j̲ird. Il capitula devant une armée musulmane commandée par ʿAbd Allāh b. ʿĀmir en 30/650-1. En 548-9/1153-4, il fut dévasté par Yanāltegīn. Selon Ḥamd Allāh Mustawfi̊ sa population était composée de S̲h̲īʿites duodécimains. Parmi ses hommes célèbres, figurent Niẓām al-mulk, wazīr d’Alp Arslan et de Maliks̲h̲āh, Abū l-Faḍl Muḥammad b. Ḥu…

(pl. k̲h̲āliṣad̲j̲āt) est d’un usage général dans les sources persanes du moyen âge pour désigner les terres de la couronne; ce terme s’applique également à de petites rivières, des ḳanāts [ q.v.] et des puits appartenant à la couronne. Dans les premiers temps de l’Islam, le mot ṣawāfī [ q.v.] était employé pour les domaines de l’État en général, alors que ḍiyāʿ al-k̲h̲āṣṣa, ḍiyāʿ al-sulṭān et ḍiyāʿ al-k̲h̲ulafāʾ désignaient les propriétés privées du calife. Sous les premières dynasties semi-indépendantes qui prirent naissance en Perse au moment du démembrement du califat, k̲h̲āṣṣ et k…

, Naḳāra-k̲h̲āna (p.), sorte d’orchestre militaire, qui doit son nom à la naḳḳāra ou timbale, mais dont l’origine est obscure. La naḳḳāra-k̲h̲āna est citée de bonne heure à une époque où cette expression paraît avoir été synonyme de ṭabl-k̲h̲āna [ q.v.]. Militaire dès l’origine, elle a conservé sa fonction jusqu’à nos jours dans l’armée persane, mais ce rôle a tendu à être supplanté par son emploi dans les cérémonies. Elle entrait dans le cérémonial du calife et lui était réservée au début. Elle était composée de divers instruments: t…

, pl. de īl, apparaît pour la première fois en persan à l’époque īl-k̲h̲ānide pour désigner les tribus nomades ou semi-nomades. ʿAs̲h̲ā ʾir, ḳabāʾil et ṭawāʾif sont également employés soit dans ce sens précis, soit pour les tribus en général, qu’elles soient nomades ou non. L’expression īlāt wa-ʿas̲h̲āʾir, qui se rencontre fréquemment au moyen âge comme à l’époque moderne, donne à penser que les deux termes sont largement synonymes. Au moyen âge, īlāt apparaît aussi en rapport avec ulūs « membres des tribus », et oymaḳ. Depuis des temps anciens, la population de nombreuses région…

, terme qui peut être traduit approximativement par chambellan (angl. Chamberlain) et qui désigne dans les pays musulmans le personnage chargé de garder la porte du souverain en ne laissant accéder auprès de lui que les visiteurs agréés. Ce terme devint rapidement un titre correspondant à une dignité de cour et à une fonction dont la nature exacte a pu varier sensiblement selon les régions et les époques. Essentiellement maître des cérémonies, le ḥād̲j̲ib apparaît en effet souvent comme un surin…

, agriculture. Falḥ, action de fendre et de couper, s’appliquant à la terre, a le sens de «fendre pour cultiver», soit «labourer». Fallāḥ «laboureur», filāḥa, «labourage». Mais depuis l’époque préislamique, le mot filāḥa a prit un sens plus étendu pour désigner le métier de la culture du sol, l’agriculture. Dans ce sens il est synonyme de zirāʿa, auquel les anciens préféraient filāḥa (tous les anciens auteurs appelaient leurs ouvrages d’agriculture Kitāb al-Filāḥa). Actuellement ce dernier mot est très usité, en Afrique du Nord, dans le langage officiel comme dans …

(a.), cérémonies officielles de la cour, qu’elles comportent ou non une procession. L’ensemble du cérémonial, protocole et étiquette compris, est également nommé rusūm, et l’on rencontre fréquemment mawsim [ q.v.] et mawkib. Le pl. mawākib [ q.v.] désigne spécifiquement des processions ¶ solennelles, mais paraît avoir eu en outre le sens plus général d’audiences (pour les ʿAbbāsides, voir les références dans D. Sourdel, Vizirat II, 684, n. 3; pour les Fāṭimides, voir p. ex. al-Ḳalḳas̲h̲andī, Ṣubḥ, III, 494 = d̲j̲ulūs [ al-k̲h̲alīfa] fī l-mawākib; ayyām al-mawākib). 1. — Sous le c…

(A.) pi. ḳanawāt, ḳanā, ḳunī, aḳniya, «canal, canalisation, conduite d’eau». Ce terme, qui désigne aussi un bâton, une lance, etc., signifie primitivement «roseau» [voir Ḳaṣab], et c’est avec ce sens et celui de «jonc» que le mot ḳanū est connu en accadien (cf. Zimmern, Akkad. Fremdwörter, Leipzig 1915. 56); devenu en hébreu ḳanä et en araméen ḳanyā, il est passé en arabe; le grec et le latin l’ont aussi emprunté sous les formes χάννα, χάννη (χάνη) canna, et c’est par suite d’une évolution parallèle à celle de ḳanĀt que canalis «en forme de roseau» a pris le sens de «conduit, canal». En persan, ḳ…

, terme non ḳurʾānique par lequel l’usage désigne d’une part le devoir de tout Musulman d’«ordonner le bien et défendre le mal», d’autre part la fonction du personnage effectivement chargé en ville de l’application de cette règle à la police des moeurs et plus particulièrement à celle du marché — personnage qui, assumant la ḥisba, s’appelle le muḥtasib —; il ne semble pas qu’aucun texte précise explicitement ni la raison du choix de ce terme ni comment les acceptions indiquées ont été déduites de la notion de «compte» ou «suffisance» incluse dans la racine. I. — Généralités: sources, origi…

, privilèges commerciaux, capitulations. I. La plus ancienne documentation sur les privilèges commerciaux concédés par les chancelleries musulmanes dans le monde méditerranéen date du VIe/XIIe siècle; il est peu probable que ces documents constituent le témoignage le plus ancien de cette activité diplomatique et commerciale entre souverains de l’Islam et de la Chrétienté, qui atteignit son point culminant dans les Capitulations ottomanes, mais il serait vain de faire des suppositions sur la forme ou la langue des instr…

, ville et district au Nord-ouest de Téhéran et au Sud du Gīlān. La ville (36°15´ N., 50° E.; alt. 1270 m.) est à 150 km. environ de Téhéran, en bordure d’une vaste plaine alluviale fermée par des montagnes à une dizaine de km. au Nord. Elle s’élève sur l’emplacement d’une ancienne cité construite par S̲h̲āpūr II, sur le site d’une autre ville bâtie par S̲h̲āpür b. Ardas̲h̲īr (Ḥamd Allāh Mustawfī, Taʾrīk̲h̲-ī guzīda, éd. E. G. Browne et R. A. Nicholson, 1910-3, 830, trad. partielle Barbier de Meynard, Description historique de la ville de Kazvin, dans JA, 1857, t.à.p. Paris 1858, 3). Elle …