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[English edition] العباسيون، (بنو العباس)، دولة الخلفاء الذين تداولوا على الحكم من 132هـ/750 من إلى 656هـ/1258م، المنتسبون إلى العباس بن عبد المطلب بن هاشم، عمّ الرسول). لم ترد أخبار الحركة التي أطاحت بالأمويين وأقامت دولة بني العباس إلا في النصوص المنقّحة التي نشرت وروّجت بعد قيام هذه الدولة وتدعيم سلطانها. ثم ظهرت دراسة نقدية أنجزها ج. فان فولتين «صعود العباسيين في خراسان»، ليدن 1890، «وبحوث في الهيمنة العربية والمذهب الشيعي والمعتقدات المسيحية في العهد الأموي»، أمستردام 1894 (توسع فيها ج. فيلهاوزن (J.Wellhausen-) ف…

; from ʿaskar , soldier; in Ottoman technical usage a member of the ruling military caste, as distinct from the reʿāyā —the subject population of peasants and townspeople ( reʿāyā sometimes means the subjects generally, sometimes only the peasants). The term ‘askarī denoted caste rather than function; it included retired or unemployed ʿaskarīs, the wives and children of ʿaskarīs, manumitted slaves of the Sultan and of the ʿaskarīs, and also the families of the holders of religious public offices in attendance ( mulāzemet ) on the Sultan. The Ottoman ʿaskarī class comprised both th…

, formerly also başbakanlik arşivi , the Archives of the Prime Minister’s office, the name now given to the central state archives of Turkey and of the Ottoman Empire. The formation of the Ottoman archives begins with the rise of the Ottoman state, but the present collection, though containing a number of individual documents and registers from earlier times, dates substantially from after the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453. The archives became really full from about the middle of the 16th century, and continue to the end of the Empire. The organisation of the Ottoman reco…

, an Ottoman title of Greek origin, from αὐθέντης, Lord, Master, (cf. authentic), probably via a Byzantine colloquial vocative form, afendi (G. Meyer, Türkische Studien , i, in SBAk . Wien (1893), 37; K. Foy in MSOS, i/2 (1898), 44 n. 3; Psichari, 408). The term was already in use in Turkish Anatolia in the 13th and 14th centuries. Eflākī indicates that the daughter of Ḏj̲alāl al-Dīn Rūmī was known as Efendipoulo—the master’s daughter (Cl. Huart, Les saints des derviches tourneurs , Paris 1922, ii, 429; on the later Karaite family name Afendopoulo or Efendipoulo see Z. Ankori, Karaites in Byza…

(a.), “servant of the two holy places” (sc. Mecca and Medina), a title used by a number of Muslim monarchs. Adopted by the Ottoman Sultan Selīm I after the conquest of Egypt in 922/1517 and used by some of his successors, it was regarded in late Ottoman times as a Caliphal title, and was said to have been taken over by Selīm from the last ʿAbbāsid caliph in Cairo. This does not correspond with the evidence, and appears to be part of the mythology of the Ottoman caliphate. As far as can be ascert…

, i.e., holder of a berāt, a name given in the late 18th and early 19th centuries to certain non-Muslim subjects of the Ottoman Empire, who held berāts conferring upon them important commercial and fiscal privileges. These berāts were distributed by the European diplomatic missions, in abusive extension of their rights under the capitulations. Originally intended for locally recruited consular officers and agents, they were sold or granted to growing numbers of local merchants, who were thus able to acquire a privileged and protect…

, the name given to the Ottoman imperial council, until the mid 11th/17th century the central organ of the government of the Empire. Evidence on the dīwān under the early Sultans is scanty. According to ʿĀs̲h̲iḳpas̲h̲azāde (ch. 31; ed. N. Atsız, Osmanlı tarihlerı , Istanbul 1949, 118; German trans. R. Kreutel, Vom Hirtenzeit zur hohen Pforte , Graz 1959, 66), the practice of wearing a twisted turban ( burma dülbend ) when attending the dīwān was introduced during the reign of Ork̲h̲ān. Probably a kind of public audience is meant. The Egyptian physician S̲h̲ams al-Dīn …

(Turkish eshām ), plural of Arabic sahm (Turkish sehim), share. In Turkey the word was used to designate certain treasury issues, variously described as bonds, assignats, and annuities. The es̲h̲ām are called annuities by Hammer ( Leibrenten ) and also in the Ottoman budget of 1862-3, where they are mentioned as rentes viagčres . The description is not strictly accurate, as although the eshām reverted to the state on the death of the holder, they could be sold, the state claiming a duty ¶ of one year’s income on each such transfer. According to Muṣṭafā Nūrī Pasha, the eshām …

, a name given in mediaeval times to the followers in Syria of the Nizārī branch of the Ismāʿīlī sect. The name was carried from Syria to Europe by the Crusaders, and occurs in a variety of forms in the Western literature of the Crusades, as well as in Greek and Hebrew texts. In the form ‘assassin’ it eventually found its way into French and English usage, with corresponding forms in Italian, Spanish and other languages. Af first the word seems to have been used in the sense of devotee ¶ or zealot, thus corresponding to fidāʿī [ q.v.]. As early as the 12th century Provençal poets compare the…

, Ottoman Turkish writer, was born in Istanbul in 1260/1844, the son of a poor draper called Sulaymān Ag̲h̲a and a Circassian ¶ mother. He lost his father in early childhood, and was for a while apprenticed to a shopkeeper. When he was 10 years old the family moved to Vidin, where his half-brother Ḥāfiẓ Ag̲h̲a was the mudïr of a kaḍā . Ḥāfiẓ, however, fell into disgrace, and in 1859 Aḥmed returned to Istanbul, where he began his schooling. In 1277/1861 Ḥāfiẓ Ag̲h̲a, having won the favour of Midḥat Pas̲h̲a, was reinstated and given an …

( Banu ’l-ʿAbbās ), the dynasty of the Caliphs from 132/750 to 656/1258. The dynasty takes its name from its ancestor, al-ʿAbbās b. ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib b. Hās̲h̲im, the uncle of the Prophet. The story of the origins and nature of the movement that overthrew the Umayyad Caliphate and established the ʿAbbāsid dynasty in its place was for long known only in the much-revised version put about when the dynasty had already attained power, and, with it, respectability. A more critical version was proposed by G. van Vloten ( De opkomst der Abbasiden in Chorasan , Leiden 1890, and Recherches …

, Deryā-beyi , sea-lord, a title given in the Ottoman Empire to certain officers of the fleet. In the 9th/15th century the term deryā-beyi or deñiz-beyi is sometimes used of the commandant of Gallipoli [see gelibolu ], who had the rank of Sand̲j̲aḳ-beyi, and was the naval commander-inchief until the emergence of the Kapudan Pas̲h̲a [ q.v.]. In the 10th/16th century the Kapudan Pas̲h̲a became, as well as an admiral, the governor of an eyālet , which consisted of a group of ports and islands [see d̲j̲azā’ir-i baḥr-i safīd ]. This province, like others, was divide…

, (also s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-islām kapi̊si̊ , bāb-i fetwā and fetwāk̲h̲āne ), a name which became common in the Ottoman Empire during the 19th century for the office or department of the S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-Islām [ q.v.], the Chief Muftī of Istanbul. Until 1241/1826 the Chief Muftīs had functioned and issued their rulings from their own residences or, if these were too distant, from rented quarters. In that year, after the destruction of the Janissaries, Sulṭān Maḥmūd II gave the former ¶ residence of the Ag̲h̲a of the Janissaries, near the Süleymāniyye Mosque, to the Chief Muftī, who …

, S̲h̲īʿite heretic, flourished in the second century A.H. He lived in Kūfa and earned his living by selling barley ( s̲h̲aʿīr ), whence his name. According to the Minhād̲j̲ and the Muntahā , he was sometimes mistakenly referred to as al-As̲h̲ʿarī, instead of the correct al-S̲h̲aʿīrī. According to traditions related by al-Kas̲h̲s̲h̲ī, he was repudiated and disowned by the Imām D̲j̲aʿfar al-Ṣādiḳ ( Rid̲j̲āl 252-4; cf. 197, where ʿAbū Bas̲h̲s̲h̲ār al-As̲h̲ʿarīʾ is denounced as a liar, together with such notorious heretics as al-Mug̲h̲īra …

, Ottoman jurist and theologian. Born in Istanbul in 1004/1595-6, he was the son of ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Efendi, a Ḳāḍīʿasker of Rumelia, and the grandson of the historian Saʿd al-Dīn. Entering upon the cursus honorum of the religious institution, he became mudarris and molla and was appointed ḳāḍī first in Salonica and then, in 1043/1633-4, in Aleppo. A heavy smoker, he was reported by the Beylerbey Aḥmed Pas̲h̲a, with whom he was on bad ternis, and in 1044/1634-5 was dismissed and exiied to Cyprus as a punishment for w…

, known as ṣāḥib al-zand̲j̲ , was the leader of the Zand̲j̲ [ q.v.], the rebel negro slaves who for fifteen years (255-270/868-83) terrorised southern ʿIrāḳ and the adjoining territories. He was born in Warzanīn, a village near Rayy, and is said by some authorities to have been of Arab origin, being descended from ʿAbd al-Ḳays on his father’s side and from Asad on his mother’s. His name is generally given as ʿAlī b. Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Raḥīm. According to Ibn al-Ḏj̲awzī ( al-Muntaẓam , Hyderabad 1357, v, 2, 69) his real name was ¶ Bihbūd̲h̲. Al-Bīrūnī ( Chronology , 332;…

, a Turkish dervish who acquired some celebrity in the time of the Il-Ḵh̲āns. He is said to have been a disciple of the famous Sarǐ Saltuk [ q.v.], and is mentioned in connexion with the Bābāʾī, Bektās̲h̲ī, and Mewlewī movements. His followers were called Baraḳīs; his Ḵh̲alīfa was Ḥayrān Emird̲j̲i. A story preserved by Yazǐd̲j̲ǐog̲h̲lu ʿAlī makes him a Sald̲j̲ūḳ prince, converted to Christianity by the Greek patriarch and then reconverted to Islam by Sarǐ Saltuk, who transmitted his supernatural powers to him and gave h…

or serʿasker kapi̊si̊ , the name of the War Department in the Ottoman Empire during the 19th century. After the destruction of the Janissaries in 1241/1826, the Ag̲h̲a of the Janissaries was replaced by a new commanding officer, the Serʿasker [ q.v.]. The title was an old one, given to army commanders in former times. As applied by Maḥmūd II, it came to connote an officer who combined the functions of commander in-chief and minister of war, with special responsibility for the new style army. In addition, he inherited from the Ag̲h̲a of…

Efendi , 19th century Turkish translator. Born in Üsküdar, he was trained in the language chamber [see terd̲j̲üme odasi̊ ] of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and subsequently held a number of official appointments. He is mentioned as having been Ottoman Consul in Tabrīz and a member of the Embassy in Tehrān, and in 1876 was elected a deputy in the first Ottoman parliament. He died in 1878 of typhus, contracted while caring for refugees from the Russo-Turkish war, and was buried at the Karacaahmet cemetery in Üsküdar. Aḥmed Ḥilmī played a pioneer role as a tra…

efendi, known as Aḳs̲h̲ehirli, an Ottoman S̲h̲eyk̲h̲ al-Islām. The son of ʿOt̲h̲mān Efendi of Ilgin, he was born in 1210/1795-6, and held various appointments in the teaching branch of the ʿIlmiyye [ q.v.] profession. In 1275/1858-9, on the death of Yaḥyā Efendi [ q.v.], he was appointed to the office of Ders Wekīli , with the duty of teaching and preaching on behalf of the S̲h̲eyk̲h̲ al-Islām. Ḏj̲ewdet, who had reason to be hostile to Ḥasan Fehmī, indicates that the appointment was made for want of any one better, and says that he was known among the students as kad̲h̲ūbī —the liar ( Tezâkir 13-…

, Kamāl al-Dīn Abu ’l-Ḳāsim ʿUmar b. Aḥmad b. Hibat Allāh , historian of Aleppo, born there in 588/1192, died in Cairo in 660/1262. A wealthy and prominent family of ʿIrāḳī Arab origin, the Banu ’l-ʿAdīm acquired property in and around Aleppo, and a number of them rose to eminence or office under the successive dynasties that ruled in that city. For five generations they held the office of ḳāḍī; the historian’s father was a chief ḳāḍī under Zangid and then Ayyūbid rule. He himself, after studies in Aleppo, Damascus, Jerusalem, Bag̲h̲dād and the Ḥid̲j̲āz, served in Aleppo as a secretary, as a ḳāḍī…

, abu ’l-futūḥ , a slave who was for a while ruler of Egypt during the reign of al-Ḥākim. He was brought up at the court of al-ʿAzīz, where he held the post of intendant ( Ḵh̲iṭaṭ ii, 3; Ibn Tag̲h̲ribirdī, Cairo, iv, 48; Ibn Ḵh̲allikān. ii, 201). He was a eunuch, and was known by the title Ustād̲h̲ [ q.v.]. His ethnie origin is uncertain—Ibn Ḵh̲allikān calls him a negro, Ibn al-Ḳalānisī simply a white ( abyaḍ al-lawn ), al-Maḳrīzī either a Slav or a Sicilian, the readings Saḳlabī and Siḳillī both occurring in the MSS. of the Ḵh̲iṭaṭ (cf. S. de Sacy, Chrestomothie , i, 130). Bard̲j̲awān was appointed g…

, Ottoman naval officer and author. A graduate of the naval college, he held various appointments, and served for a while in both the Ḥid̲j̲āz and Yemen. He died in Istanbul in 1308/1890. He was the author of a number of historical and descriptive works on Arabia, including an account of Mecca and Medina ( Mirʾāt al-Ḥaramayn , 3 vols., Istanbul 1301-6), and a history of the Wahhābīs ( Taʾrīk̲h̲-i Wahhābiyyān , Istanbul 1296). Besides these he wrote a biography of the Prophet called Maḥmūd al-Siyar (Edirne 1287). (B. Lewis) Bibliography Babinger 372-3 Sid̲j̲ill-i ʿOt̲h̲mānī, i, 451 Ot̲h̲mānl…

, a Turkish word meaning living or livelihood. In the Ottoman Empire it was used to denote an income provided by the state, directly or indirectly, for the support of persons in its service. The term is used principally of the military fiefs (see timar), but also applies to pay (see ʿulūfa ), salaries, and grants of various kinds in lieu of pay to officers of the central and provincial governments. It does not normally apply to tax-farms, the basis of which is purchase and not service. (B. Lewis) Bibliography Ḏj̲aʿfer Čelebi, Maḥrūse-i Istanbul fetḥnāmesi, TOEM suppl. 1331, 17 Koçi Bey Risale…

, from Arabic amīn [ q.v.], faithful, trustworthy, an Ottoman administrative title usually translated intendant or commissioner. His function or office was called emānet . The primary meaning of emīn , in Ottoman official usage, was a salaried officer appointed by or in the name of the Sultan, usually by berāt , to administer, supervise or control a department, function or source of revenue. There were thus emīns of various kinds of stores and supplies, of mints, of mines, of customs, customs-houses and other revenues, and of the taḥrīr [ q.v.], the preparation of the registers of la…

, a term applied in early S̲h̲īʿism to the senior authorised disciple of the Imām. The hagiographical Uterature of the Twelver S̲h̲īʿa usually names the bābs of the Imāms. Among the Ismāʿīliyya [ q.v.] bāb was a rank in the hierarchy. The term was already in use in pre-Fāṭimid times, though its significance is uncertain (cf. W. Ivanow, The Alleged Founder of Ismailism , Bombay 1946, 125 n. 2, citing al-Kas̲h̲s̲h̲ī, Rid̲j̲āl , 322; idem, Notes sur l’Ummu ’l-Kitab , in REI, 1932, 455; idem, Studies in early Persian Ismailism 2, Bombay 1955, 19 ff.). Under the Fāṭimids in Egypt the bāb cornes imme…

, Bezirgan, Turkish forms of the Persian Bāzargān , a merchant. In Ottoman Turkish usage the term Bāzi̊rgān was applied to Christian and more especially Jewish merchants. Some of these held official appointments in the Ottoman palace or armed forces; such were the Bazi̊rganbas̲h̲i̊ , the chief purveyor of textiles to the Imperial household (D’Ohsson, Tableau général , vii, Paris 1824, 22; Gibb-Bowen, 1/1, 359), and the Od̲j̲aḳ Bāzi̊rgāni̊ , the stewards, usually Greek or Jewish, who handled the pay and supplies of the corps of Janissaries. T…

, the name of a family of Ottoman ʿulemāʾ who achieved some prominence in the 16th and early 17th centuries. The founder of the family was (1) Muṣṭafā Efendi, born in Tire, in the province of Aydi̊n, ¶ in 904/1498-9, and known as Bostān (or Būstān); his father was a merchant called Meḥmed (thus in the text of ʿAṭāʾī and on the tombstone preserved in the Türk-Islam Eserleri Müzesi in Istanbul; the heading Muṣṭafā b. ʿAlī in ʿAṭāʾī is no doubt an error due to confusion with his namesake Muṣṭafā, known as Küçük Bostān; ʿAṭāʾī 132. cf. Hüseyin Gazi Yurdaydin in Bell . xix, 1955…

, Abū Bakr b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Aybak al-Dawādārī , Egyptian historian. His father, D̲j̲amāl al-Dīn ʿAbd Allāh, was in the service of the Amīr Sayf al-Dīn Balabān al-Rūmī al-Ẓāhirī, the Dawādār of Baybars, whence the by-name Dawādārī. His grandfather, lord of Sark̲h̲ad. was tentatively identified byṢ. Munad̲j̲d̲j̲id as ʿIzz al-Dīn Aybak al-Ustādār al-Muʿaẓẓamī (d. 645/1247-8), the patron of the medical biographer Ibn Abī Uṣaybiʿa [ q.v.]. The family is described, somewhat improbably, as of Sald̲j̲ūḳid descent. The author’s family lived in Cairo, in the Ḥārat al-Bāṭiliyya. Hi…

, Abu ’l-ḥasan b. mūsā b. dj̲aʿfar eighth Imām of the Twelver S̲h̲īʿa, was born in Medina in 148/765 (al-Ṣafadī) or, according to other and probably better informed authorities, in 151/768 or 153/770 (al-Nawbak̲h̲tī, Ibn Ḵh̲allikān. Mīrk̲h̲w ānd). He died in Ṭūs in 203/818; the sources agree on the year, but differ as to the day and month (end of Ṣafar—al-Ṭabarī, al-Ṣafadī; 21 Ramaḍān—al-Ṣafadī; 13 Ḏh̲ū ’l-Ḳaʿda or 5 Ḏh̲ū ’l-Ḥid̲j̲d̲j̲a—Ibn Ḵh̲allikān). His father was the Imām Mūsā al-Kāẓim, his mother a Nubian umm walad whose name is variously given (S̲h̲ahd or Nad̲j̲iyya—al-N…

, literally ‘wind of the air’; in Ottoman fiscal usage a general term for irregular and occasional revenues from fines, fees, registration charges, and other casual sources of income. The term does not a appear in the Ḳānūns of the 9th/15th century, but is found in a Ḳānūnnāme of Gelibolu of 925/1519, where mention is made of penalties and fines, bride-tax, fees for the recapture of runaway slaves, ‘and other bād-i hawā’ (Barkan 236). It also appears, in similar terms, in Ḳānūnnāmes of Ankara (929/1522-Barkan 34), Ḥamīd (935/1528-Barkan 33), Aydīn (935/…

, in Persian ‘outside’, the name given to the outer departments and services of the Ottoman Imperial Household, in contrast to the inner departments known as the Enderūn [ q.v.]. The Bīrūn was thus the meeting-point of the court and the state, and besides palace functionaries included a number of high officers and dignitaries concerned with the administrative, military, and religious affairs of the Empire. (B. Lewis) Bibliography D’Ohsson, Tableau général de l’Empire Othoman, vii, Paris 1824, 1-33 Ismail Hakkı Uzunçarşılı, Osmanlı Devletinin Saray Teşkilâtı, Ankara 1945, 358 ff. Gib…

, the laḳab of Abū D̲j̲aʿfar Aḥmad b. Ḥusayn, a S̲h̲īʿī traditionist of the 3rd/9th century. His father was a reliable authority who related traditions of the Imāms ʿAlī al-Riḍā, Muḥammad al-D̲j̲awād, and ʿAlī al-Hādī; originally from Kūfa, he lived for a while in Ahwāz, where Dindān was born. Dindān also related traditions on the authority of his father’s masters, but was regarded as a g̲h̲ālī , extremist, and his reliability as a relator was impugned. He wrote several books, among them Kitāb al-iḥtid̲j̲ād̲j̲ , K. al-anbiyāʾ , K. al-mat̲h̲ālib , and K. al-muk̲h̲taṣar fi ’l-daʿwāt …

, Ottoman scholar and physician, grandson of the Grand Vezir Ḵh̲ayrullah Efendi and son of Ḵh̲wād̲j̲a Meḥmed Emīn S̲h̲ukūhī. Born in 1188/1774, he entered upon the ladder of the religious institution, becoming a mudarris in 1206/1791-2. Specialising in medicine, he rose rapidly, and in 1218/1803 became chief physician to the Sultan (Ḥekīmbas̲h̲ǐ or, more formally, Reʾīs-i Eṭibbā-i Sulṭānī ). In 1222/1807 he was dismissed from this office, but was reappointed in 1232/1817. In 1237/1821 he was disgraced and banished, but was reinsta…

, in Turkish zabit , an Ottoman term for certain functionaries and officers, later specialized to describe officers in the armed forces. In earlier Ottoman usage Ḍābiṭ seems to indicate a person in charge or in control of a matter or of ( ? the revenues of) a place ( e.g. Ewḳāf ḍābiṭi , Wilāyet ḍābiṭi etc.; examples, some with place-names, in Halit Ongan, Ankara’nın I Numaralı Şer’iye Sicili , Ankara 1958, index, and L. Fekete, Die Siyāqat-Schrift , i, Budapest 1955, 493 ff.; cf. the Persian usage in the sense of collector — Minorsky, Tad̲h̲kirat al-Mulūk , index). The…

, a term commonly applied in the 2nd-3rd/8th-9th centuries to members of the ʿAbbāsid house and occasionally to their followers and supporters. From early ʿAbbāsid times it was understood to denote the descendants of Hās̲h̲im b. ʿAbd Manāf [ q.v.], the common ancestor of the Prophet, ʿAlī, and al-ʿAbbās; its use by the ʿAbbāsids was thus interpreted as expressing a claim to the Caliphate based on kinship with the Prophet in the male line. Van Vloten, followed by other scholars, showed that the name had in fact a different origin. Fro…

, the mighty one of Egypt. In the Kurʾān (xii, 30, 51) the title al-ʿAzīz is given to the unnamed Egyptian who buys Yūsuf. In later legend and commentary he is called Kiṭfīr [ q.v.], from the Biblical Potiphar. The title al-ʿAzīz seems to connote the office of chief minister under Pharoah, as the same title is applied to Yūsuf himself when he reaches that position (Kurʾān, xii, 78, 88). In some of the Arabic dictionaries the term is defined as meaning the ruler of Egypt (Miṣr) and Alexandria (Lane, s.v.). In Ottoman texts the epithet ʿAzīz Miṣr is sometimes applied to the Mamlūk sultans of Egypt ( e.g…

(a.) or Mas̲h̲ūra , a common term for consultation, in particular by the ruler of his advisers, the latter being various defined. The term sometimes also appears to mean some kind of deliberative gathering or assembly. The practice of consultative decision was known in pre-Islamic Arabia [see mad̲j̲lis , and malaʾ in Suppl). Two passages in the Ḳurʾān (III, 153/159, was̲h̲āwirhum fi ’l-amr and XLII, 36/38, wa-amruhum s̲h̲ūrā baynahum) are commonly cited as imposing a duty of consultation on rulers. The merits of consultation ( mus̲h̲āwara and mas̲h̲wara) and the corresponding defe…

, the three towns, a term employed in Ottoman legal and administrative usage for Eyyūb, Galata, and Üsküdar, i.e., the three separate urban areas attached to Istanbul. Each had its own ḳāḍī, independent of the ḳādī of Istanbul, though of lower rank. Every Wednesday the ḳāḍīs of the ‘three towns’ joined the ḳāḍī of Istanbul in attending the Grand Vezir. This judicial autonomy of the three towns goes back to early Ottoman times, probably even to the conquest. The three towns also enjoyed some autonomy in police mat…

, in Turkish zabtiyye , a late Ottoman term for the police and gendarmerie. Police duties, formerly under the control of various janissary officers, were placed under the jurisdiction of the Serʿasker ([ q.v.] see also bāb-i serʿaskerī ) in 1241/ 1826, and in 1262/1846 became a separate administration, the Ḍabṭiyee Mus̲h̲īriyyeti (Ḷutfī iii 27-8). At about the same time a council of police ( med̲j̲lis-i ḍabṭiyye ) was established, which was later abolished and replaced by two quasi-judicial bodies, the dīwān-i ḍabṭiyye and med̲j̲lis-i taḥḳīḳ- After several further changes the mus̲h̲īr…

, a Turkish word meaning cameleer, the name given to certain regiments of the corps of janissaries [see yeni čeri ], forming part of the D̲j̲emāʿat , and performing escort duties with the supply columns. They were also called by the Persian term s̲h̲uturbān . The Deved̲j̲is originally formed the first five ortas of the Ḏj̲emaʿat (four according to D’Ohsson), and were later augmented to include many others. They wore heron’s feathers in their crests (see sorguč ); when attending the dīwān they wore velvet trimmed with sable and lynx fur. Deved̲j̲i officers enjoyed high precedence among the or…

the Ottoman Scientific Society, was founded in Istanbul in 1861 by Munīf Pas̲h̲a [ q.v.]. Modelled on the Royal Society of England, and perhaps inspired by the reopening of the Institut d’Egypte [ q.v.] in Alexandria in 1859, it consisted of a group of Turkish officials, dignitaries and scholars, some of them educated in Europe. It was the third such learned society to appear in 19th century Turkey, having been preceded by the End̲j̲umen-i Dānis̲h̲ in 1851 (see and̲j̲uman ), and by the ‘learned society of Bes̲h̲iktas̲h̲’ in the time of Maḥmūd II (see D̲j̲ewdet, Taʾrīk̲h̲ 2 …

, Turkish writer and politician. Born in Eskid̲j̲uma in 1863, he became involved in illegal political activities while still a medical student. After serving a brief term of imprisonment, he fled to Europe in 1895, and joined the Young Turk group in Geneva, where in 1896 he founded, with others, the Ottoman Revolutionary Party ( ʿOt̲h̲mānli̊ Ik̲h̲tilāl Fi̊rḳasi̊ ); he was particularly effective as a writer and propagandist with a simple and direct popular appeal. In 1900, together with ʿAbd Allāh D̲j̲ewdet and Isḥāḳ Sükūtī [ qq.v.], he made his peace with the Sultan and was appoi…

, in Turkish defterdār , keeper of the daftar [ q.v.], an Ottoman term for the chief finance officer, corresponding to the Mustawfī [ q.v.] in the eastern Islamic world. According to Ḳalḳas̲h̲andī ( Ṣubḥ , iii, 485, 494, 525, 526), the title Ṣāḥib al-Daftar already existed in the Fāṭimid administration, for the official in charge of the Daftar al-Mad̲j̲lis , that is, of accounts and audits. The title Daftark̲h̲ w ān — Daftar -reader—appears in the time of Saladin (B. Lewis, Three Biographies from Kamāl ad-Dīn , in Fuad Köprülü Armağanı , Istanbul 1953, 343), and r…

, the Ottoman public debt, more particularly the debt administration set up in 1881. The Ottoman government had made its first attempts to raise money by internal loans in ¶ the late 18th and early 19th centuries (see ashām and ḳāʾime ). The needs and opportunities of the Crimean War brought a new type of loan, floated on the money markets of Europe. The first such foreign loan was raised in London in 1854, the second in the following year. They were for £ 3,000,000 at 6% and £ 5,000,000 at 4% respectively. Betwee…

, descendants of ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib, who had eighteen sons (according to most works on ʿAlid genealogy, but fourteen according to another version given by al-Ṭabarī and eleven according to al-Masʿūdī), and seventeen daughters. His sons were as follows: By Fāṭima; al-Ḥasan, al-Ḥusayn, and al-Muḥsin (or Muḥassin). The third does not appear in all sources. By Ḵh̲awla; Muḥammad, known as Ibn al-Ḥanafiyya. By Umm al-Banīn; ʿAbbās the elder, ʿAbd Allāh, ʿUt̲h̲mān the elder, Ḏj̲aʿfar the elder. By al-Ṣaḥbāʾ, called Umm Ḥabīb; ʿUmar. By Laylā bint Masʿūd; Abū Bakr ʿAbd al-Raḥmān, ʿUbayd Allāh. B…

, called al-ḥāʾik , S̲h̲īʿite heretic. A disciple of Abu ’l-Ḵh̲aṭṭāb [ q.v.], he was, like his master, denounced by the Imām Ḏj̲aʿfar al-Ṣādiḳ as a heretic and was even, according to Nawbak̲h̲tī, disowned by Abu ’l-Ḵh̲aṭṭāb himself. Kas̲h̲s̲h̲ī reports a tradition that when Ḏj̲aʿfar al-Ṣādiḳ was told that Bazīg̲h̲ had been killed, he expressed satisfaction. This would place Bazīg̲h̲’s death before that of D̲j̲aʿfar in 148/765. Like many of the early extremist S̲h̲īʿites, Bazīg̲h̲ was an artisan—a weaver of …

, the son of Hart̲h̲ama b. Aʿyan [ q.v.], held a number of appointments in the service of the Caliphs. In a letter from al-Amīn to Ṣāliḥ, dated S̲h̲awwāl 192/July-August 808, i.e., nearly a year before the death of Hārūn al-Ras̲h̲īd, the heir apparent advises his brother to confirm Ḥātim b. Hart̲h̲ama, like his father a man of proved loyalty, in his post, and to entrust him with the guarding of the Caliphal palaces (Ṭabarī, iii, 769; cf. Gabrieli, Documenti relativi al califfato di al-Amīn in aṭ-Ṭabarī , in Rend. Lin ., Ser. vi, vol. iii (1927), 203). Later, al-A…

, ‘head of a thousand’, a Turkish military rank. The word appears at an early date among the Western Turks, and is already used in connexion with the military reorganisation said to have been made by Ork̲h̲ān in 729/1328-9 ( e.g., Saʿd al-Dīn, Tād̲j̲ al-Tawārīk̲h̲ , i, 40— ‘onbas̲h̲i̊s , yüzbas̲h̲i̊s , and biñbas̲h̲i̊s were appointed to them ...’). In the form miñbas̲h̲i̊ the term also occurs among the Eastern Turks, and is used, for example, of a rank in the Ṣafawid forces in Persia (V. Minorsky, Tad̲h̲kirat al-Mulūk , London 1943, 36, 74, 155). The title miñ-begi , wi…

, abu ’l-naṣr muḥammad b. masʿūd b. muḥammad b. ʿayyās̲h̲ , a S̲h̲īʿite writer of the 3rd/9th century. He was a native of Samarḳand, and was said to have been descended from the tribe of Tamīm. Originally a Sunnī, he was converted while still young to S̲h̲īʿism, and studied under the disciples of ʿAlī b. al-Ḥasan b. Faḍḍāl (d. 224/839-al-Ṭūsī 93) and of ʿAbd Allāh b. Muḥammad b. Ḵh̲ālid al-Ṭayālisī (al-Astarābādī, 211). He spent his patrimony of over 300,000 dīnārs on scholarship and…

, spring of Goliath, mentioned by the mediaeval geographers as a village between Baysān and Nābulus, in the Ḏj̲und of Filasṭīn. It stood at the head of the Wādī Ḏj̲ālūt, and is said to have owed its name to a tradition that by it David slew Goliath (cf. A. S. Marmardji, Textes géographiques arabes sur la Palestine , Paris 1951, 152; G. Le Strange, Palestine, 384, 461). In the chronicles of the Crusaders the neighbourhood is called Tubania or Tubanie. It first achieves mention in ḎJ̲um. II 578/Sept. 1183, when the armies of Saladin and of the Franks camped th…

, the two holy places, usually referring to Mecca and Medina, occasionally, in both Mamlūk and Ottoman usage, to Jerusalem and Hebron [see al-ḥaram al-s̲h̲arīf , al-k̲h̲alīl , al-ḳuds , al-madīna , makka . On the title Servant (or Protector) of the two holy places see k̲h̲ādim al-Ḥaramayn ]. The following article deals with the administration of Ottoman waḳfs in favour of the Holy Places. Such waḳfs were established, from early times by the Ottoman Sultans and by members of their household and court, and in the 9th/15th century were already administered by spe…

, also resm-i ʿarūs, resm-i ʿarūsāne, ʿādet-i ʿarūsī, etc., in earlier times gerdek deg̲h̲eri and gerdek resmi; an Ottoman tax on brides. The standard rates were sixty aspers on girls and forty or thirty on widows and divorcees. There are sometimes lower rates for persons of medium and small means. In some areas the tax is assessed in kind. Non-Muslims are usually registered as paying half-rates, but occasionally double rates. On timar lands the tax was normally payable to the timar-holder, thou…

(a.), from Ifrand̲j̲ [ q.v.], lit. “adopting, imitating or aping the manners and customs of the Franks, i.e. the Europeans”. The term was used by the pioneer journalist Ḵh̲alīl al-Ḵh̲ūrī in his satirical novella Way id̲h̲an lastu bi-Ifrand̲j̲ī (“Alas then, I am not a European”), published in the magazine Ḥadīḳat al-Ak̲h̲bār in 1860, and may be older. The Turkish alafranga [ lik ], from Italian alla franca, and the Persian g̲h̲arbzada [ gī ], literally “West-struck[ness]”, convey the same meaning. The latter term has been variously rendered as “Westosis” and “Westoxication”. During the…

, in Turkish d̲j̲ūmhūriyyet , republic, also republicanism, a term coined in Turkey in the late 18th century from the Arabic d̲j̲umhūr , meaning the crowd, mass, or generality of the people, and first used in connexion with the first French Republic. In classical Arabic, as for example in Arabic versions and discussions of Greek political writings, the usual equivalent of the Greek πολιτεία or Latin res publica, i.e., polity or commonweal, was madīna ; thus, the ‘democratic polity’ of Plato’s classification is called, by Fārābī and others, madīna d̲j̲amāʿiyya (Fārābī, Arāʾ ahl al-madī…

, in Turkish tongueless, the name given to the deaf mutes employed in the inside service ¶ ( enderūn ) of the Ottoman palace, and for a while also at the Sublime Porte. They were also called by the Persian term bīzabārī , with the same meaning. They were established in the palace from the time of Meḥemmed II to the end of the Sultanate. Information about their numbers varies. According to ʿAṭāʾ, three to five of them were attached to each chamber ( Kog̲h̲us̲h̲ ); Rycaut speaks of ‘about forty’. A document of the time of Muṣṭafā II (d. 1115/1703), cited by U…

, an Arabic word meaning lover, frequently in the mystical sense. Among the Anatolian and Ād̲h̲arbāyd̲j̲ānī Turks, from the late 9th/15th or 10th/16th century, it is used of a class of wandering poet-minstrels, who sang and recited at public gatherings. Their repertoire included religious and erotic songs, elegies and heroic narratives. At first they followed the syllabic prosody of the popular poets, but later were subjected to Persian influence, both directly and through the Persian-influenced…

, a stitched or bound booklet, or register, more especially an account or letter-book used in administrative offices. The word derives ultimately from the Greek διφθέρα “hide”, and hence prepared hide for writing. It was already used in ancient Greek in the sense of parchment or, more generally, writing materials. In the 5th century B.C. Herodotus (v, 58) remarks that the lonians, like certain Barbarians of his own day, had formerly written on skins, and still applied the term diphthera to papyrus rolls; in the 4th Ctesias ( in Diodorus Siculus ii, 32; cf. A. Christensen, Heltedigtning og …

, Muṣṭafā Ras̲h̲īd , Ottoman historian and poet, one of a family of ʿulamāʾ founded by the Ḳāḍīʿasker of Rumelia, Čes̲h̲mī Meḥmed Efendi (d. 1044/1634) A grandson of the S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-Islām Meḥmed Ṣāliḥ Efendi, and the son of a ḳāḍī in the Ḥid̲j̲āz, he entered the ʿIlmiyye profession, and held various legal and teaching posts. After the resignation of the Imperial historiographer Meḥmed Ḥākim Efendi [ q.v.], he was appointed to this office, which he held for a year and a half. He then returned to his teaching career, which culminated in his appointment as müderris at…

, a Turkish word meaning envoy, from el or il, country, people, or state, with the occupational suffix či (= d̲j̲i ). In some eastern Turkish texts the word appears to denote the ruler of a land or people; its normal meaning, however, since early times, has been that of envoy or messenger, usually in a diplomatic, sometimes, in mystical literature, in a figurative religious sense. In Ottoman Turkish it became the normal word for an ambassador, together with the more formal Arabic term sefīr . From an early date the Ottoman sultans exchanged occasional diplo…

, Abu ’l-Ḥasan ʿAli b. Muḥammad. the tenth Imām of the Twelver S̲h̲īʿa. He is commonly known as al-Naḳī and al-Hādī. He was the son of the ninth Imām Muḥammad b. ʿAlī al-Riḍā [ q.v.], and was born in Medīna. Most S̲h̲īʿite authorities give the date of his birth as Rad̲j̲ab 214/Sept. 829, though others say that he was born in Ḏh̲u ’l-Ḥid̲j̲d̲j̲a 212 or 213/Feb.-March 828 or 829. His mother, according to some sources, was Umm al-Faḍl, the daughter of al-Maʾmūn; according to others she was a Mag̲h̲ribī Umm Walad called Sumāna or Sūsan. The latter story seems more l…

a town in the Dobrud̲j̲a, now part of Rumania. Its Turkish name refers to the semi-legendary dervish (Baba) Sari̊ Salti̊ḳ, who is said to have led a number of Anatolian Turcomans to the Dobrud̲j̲a in the mid-thirteenth century, and to have settled with them in the neighbourhood of Babadag̲h̲i̊. (On this settlement see Paul Wittek, Yazijiog̲h̲lu ʿAlī on the Christian Turks of the Dobruja , in BSOAS, 1952 xvi, 639 ff.). There are several tombs of Sari̊ Salti̊ḳ in various towns; the most generally accepted is that of Babadag̲h̲i̊. What appears to be the first refer…

, a Turkish journalist who achieved a brief celebrity in 1909 as editor of the newspaper Serbestī , in which he made violent attacks on the Committee of Union and Progress [see ittiḥād we teraḳḳī ]. His murder on the Galata bridge by an unknown assailant on the night of 6-7 April 1909 (n.s.) was blamed by both the liberals and the Muhammadan Union [see ittiḥād-i muḥammedī ] jon the Committee, and his funeral was made the occasion for hostile demonstrations and speeches. A period of mounting tension followed, culminating in the mutiny of troops of the First Army Corps on 31 March o.s. = 13 April n.s. (…

, with the laḳab sayf al-dawla , ruler of Ḥimṣ and Afāmiya in the late 5th/11th century. He was ¶ accused of various misdeeds, including brigandage, and is said, during a siege of Salamiyya, to have thrown the S̲h̲arīf Ibrāhīm al-Hās̲h̲īmī against the tower from a mangonel. In 483/1090, complaints were sent to the Sultan Maliks̲h̲āh, who ordered his brother Tutus̲h̲, the ruler of Damascus, and other rulers of Syrian cities to proceed against him. A joint expedition captured Ḥimṣ, and K̲h̲alaf was sent in an iron c…

, Ottoman soldier and founder of a Derebey [ q.v.] family. He was born in Istanbul in 1133/1720-21, the son of Aḥmed Ag̲h̲a, a ḳapi̊d̲j̲i̊-bas̲h̲i̊ at the Imperial palace. As a youth he accompanied his elder brother Suleymān Pas̲h̲a to D̲j̲ānīk, where he eventually succeeded him as ruler with the title, customary among the autonomous derebeys, of muḥaṣṣil [ q.v.]. During the Russo-Turkish war of 1182/1768-1188/1774. he held a number of military commands. Serving first in Georgia, he was appointed in D̲j̲umādā II 1183/September-October 1769 to the staff …

( bas̲h̲wakīl ), theTurkish for Prime Minister. The term was first introduced in 1254/1838, when, as part of a general adoption of European nomenclature, this title was assumed by the Chief Minister in place of Grand Vezir or Ṣadr-i Aʿẓam [ q.v.]. The change of style was of short duration, lasting only for 14½ months, after which the old title was restored. A second attempt to introduce the European title was made during the first constitutional period. Introduced in Ṣafar 1295/Feb. 1878, it was dropped after 114 days, restored in S̲h̲…

chief taster, a high official of the Ottoman court. Already under the Sald̲j̲ūḳids and other Anatolian dynasties the čas̲h̲nagīr , amīr čas̲h̲nagīr or amīr-i d̲h̲awwāḳ appears among the most important officers of the Sultan. Ibn Bībī ( Al-Awāmir al-ʿAlāʾiyya , edd. Necati Lugal and Adnan Sadık Erzi, Ankara 1957, 164) mentions the čas̲h̲nagīr together with the mīr āk̲h̲ūr and the amīr mad̲j̲lis . In the Ḳānūnnāme of Meḥemmed II ( TOEM Supplement 1330 A.H. 11-12) the čas̲h̲nagīr-bas̲h̲i̊ appears as one of the ag̲h̲as of the stirrup, in the group headed by the ag̲h̲a …

, ʿAbd al-Malik , an Ismāʿīlī dāʿī who in the mid-5th/11th century was in charge of the Daʿwa in ʿIrāḳ and western Persia. Information about him is scanty. According to the autobiography of Ḥasan-i Ṣabbāḥ [ q.v.], he went to Rayy in Ramaḍān 464/May-June 1072, and enrolled Ḥasan in the Daʿwa. He is also said to have won over the Raʾīs Muẓaffar of Girdkūh, later one of the most active leaders of the Nizārīs. Ẓahīr al-Dīn and Rāwandī also allude to his relations with Ḥasan-i Ṣabbāḥ. According to this version, ʿAbd al-Malik, a resident of Iṣfahān, …

, mot turc signifiant vie ou moyens d’existence. Dans l’empire ottoman, on l’employait pour désigner le revenu fourni par l’État, directement ou indirectement, pour l’entretien de personnes à son service. Ce terme est utilisé surtout pour les fiefs militaires [voir Tīmār], mais s’applique également aux traitements [voir ʿUlūfa], salaires, et dotations de tout genre accordées en guise de traitement aux fonctionnaires des gouvernements central et provinciaux. Il ne s’applique pas normalement aux fermes d’impôt, dont le principe repose sur la n…

, écrivain et homme politique turc. Né à Eskid̲j̲uma en 1863, il fut mêlé à des activités politiques illégales alors qu’il était étudiant en médecine. Après un court séjour, en prison, il s’enfuit en Europe en 1895, et rallia le groupe des Jeunes Turcs à Genève où, avec quelques autres, il fonda en 1896 le Parti Révolutionnaire Ottoman ( ʿOt̲h̲mānli̊ Ik̲h̲tīlāl Fi̊rḳasi̊); il fut particulièrement efficace comme écrivain et propagandiste en s’adressant au peuple simplement et directement. En 1900, en même temps que ʿAbd Allāh Ḏj̲ewdet et Isḥāḳ Sükūtī [ q.v.], il se réconcilia avec le …

(turc defterdār), teneur de daftar [ q.v.], terme ottoman désignant le principal fonctionnaire des finances, correspondant au mustawfī [ q.v.] du monde musulman oriental. D’après al-Ḳalḳas̲h̲andī ( Ṣubḥ, II, 485, 494, 525, 526), le titre de ṣāḥib al-daftar existait déjà dans l’administration fāṭimide et désignait l’employé chargé du daftar al-mad̲j̲lis, c’est-à-dire des comptes et vérifications. Le titre de daftark̲h̲wān «lecteur de daftār» apparaît à l’époque de Saladin (B. Lewis, Three Biographies from Kamāl al-Dīn, dans Fuad Köpru̲lü Armağani, Istanbul 1953, 343) et r…

Efendi, connu sous le nom d’Aḳs̲h̲ehirli, s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-Islām ottoman. Fils de ʿOt̲h̲mān Efendi d’Ilgin, il naquit en 1210/1795-6, et occupa plusieurs postes dans la branche enseignante de la profession ʿilmiyye [ q.v.]. En 1275/1858-9, à la mort de Yaḥyā Efendi [ q.v.], il fut nommé au poste de ders wekīli et chargé d’enseigner et de prêcher au nom du s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-Islām. Ḏj̲ewdet, qui avait des raisons d’être hostile à Ḥasan Fehmī, précise qu’il fut nommé faute de mieux et ajoute que les étudiants l’avaient surnommé kad̲h̲ūbī — le menteur ( Tezakir 13-20, éd. Cavid Baysun, Ankara 1…

, Abū l-Ḥasan ʿAlī b. Muḥammad, dixième imām des S̲h̲īʿites duodécimains. Il esé communément connu sous le nom d’al-Naḳī -et d’al-Hādī. Fils du neuvième imām Muḥammad b. ʿAlī al-Riḍā [ q.v.], il naquit à Médine. La plupart des autorités s̲h̲iʿites le font naître en rad̲j̲ab 214/septembre 829, mais d’autres en d̲h̲ū l-ḥid̲j̲d̲j̲a 212 ou 213/février-mars 828 ou 829. Selon certaines sources, sa mère était Umm al-Faḍl, la fille d’al-Maʾmūn; selon d’autres, elle était uni umm walad mag̲h̲ribine du nom de Sumāna ou Sūsan Cette dernière affirmation semble la plus vraisem blab…

Abū l-Ḥasan b. Mūsā b. Ḏj̲aʿfar, huitième imām des S̲h̲īʿites duodécimains, naquit à Médine en 148/765 (al-Ṣafadī) ou, d’après d’autres autorités probablement mieux informées, en 151/768 ou 153/770 (aI-Nawbak̲h̲tī, Ibn Ḵh̲allikān, Mīrk̲h̲wānd). Il mourut à Ṭūs en 203/818; les sources sont d’accord sur l’année, mais diffèrent sur le jour et le mois (fin de ṣafar: al-Ṭabarī, al-Ṣafadī; 21 ramaḍān: al-Ṣafadī; 13 d̲h̲ū l-ḳaʿda ou 5 d̲h̲ū l-ḥid̲j̲d̲j̲a: Ibn Ḵh̲allikān). Son père était l’imām Mūsā al-Kāẓim, sa mère une umm walad nubienne dont le nom est présenté de diverses mani…

, nom d’une famille de ʿulamāʾ ottomans qui acquirent une certaine importance au XVIe et au début du XVIIe s. Le fondateur de la famille fut (1) Muṣṭafā Efendi, né à Tire, dans la province d’Aydi̊n, en 904/1498-9, et connu sous le nom de Bostān (ou Būstān). Son père était un marchand nommé Meḥmed (ainsi dans le texte de ʿAṭāʾī et sur la pierre tombale conservée au Türk-Islam Eserleri Müzesi à Istanbul; le titre Muṣṭafā b. ʿAlī dans ʿAṭāʾī, 132, est sans doute une erreur due à une confusion avec son homonyme Muṣṭafā, connu sous le nom de Küčük Bostān; cf. Hüseyin Gazi Yurdaydm, dans Bell., XIX (1955…

(turc eshām), pi. de l’ar. sahm (turc sehim), part. En Turquie, le mot était employé pour désigner certaines émissions du Trésor, diversement décrites comme étant des bons, des assignats et des rentes. Les eshām sont appelés «rentes» (Leibrenten) par Hammer, ainsi que dans le budget ottoman de 1862-3, où ils sont mentionnés sous le nom de rentes viagères. Le caractère n’est pas absolument sûr, car, bien que les eshām revinssent à l’État à la mort du détenteur, ils pouvaient être vendus, l’État réclamant sur chacun de ces transferts un droit égal à une annuité. D…

al-As̲h̲habī, seigneur, avec le laḳab de Sayf al-dawla, de Ḥimṣ et d’Afâmiya à la fin du Ve/XIe siècle. Il fut accusé de divers méfaits, notamment de brigandage et, au cours d’un siège de Salamiya, il aurait, au moyen d’un mangonneau, ¶ précipité le s̲h̲arīf Ibrāhīm al-Hās̲h̲imī contre la tour. En 483/1090, des plaintes furent adressées au sultan Maliks̲h̲āh, qui ordonna à son frère Tutus̲h̲, maître de Damas, et à d’autres gouverneurs de villes syriennes, de marcher contre lui. Une expédition conjointe s’empara de Ḥimṣ, et Ḵh̲alaf fut en…

, cahier cousu ou attaché, registre, plus spécialement livre de comptes ou de correspondances employé dans les services administratifs. Le terme dérive en dernière analyse du grec δıφθέρα «peau» et, de là, peau préparée pour recevoir des caractères écrits. Il était déjà employé en grec ancien dans le sens de parchemin ou, plus généralement, de matériaux pour écrire. Au Ve s. avant J.-C, Hérodote (V, 58) remarque que les Ioniens, comme certains Barbares contemporains, avaient, à une époque ancienne, écrit sur des peaux et appliquaient encore le terme δıφθέρα aux rouleaux de ¶ papyrus; a…

, surnommé al-Ḥāʿik, hérétique s̲h̲īʾite. Disciple d’Abū l-Khaṭṭāb [ q.v.], il fut, comme son maître, dénoncé par l’Imām Ḏj̲aʿfar al-Ṣādiḳ comme hérétique et fut même, d’après al-Nawbak̲h̲tī, désavoué par Abū l-Ḵh̲aṭṭāb lui-même. Al-Kas̲h̲s̲h̲ī rapporte une tradition selon laquelle, lorsqu’on apprit à Ḏj̲aʿfar al-Ṣādiḳ que Bazīg̲h̲ avait été tué, celui-ci exprima sa satisfaction. Ce détail placerait la mort de Bazīg̲h̲ avant celle de Ḏj̲aʿfar en 148/765. Comme beaucoup des premiers extrémistes s̲h̲īʿites…

(a.), ou Mas̲h̲ūra, terme islamique courant pour désigner une consultation. Il s’emploie en particulier lorsque le souverain consulte ses conseillers (ces derniers étant diversement définis), mais s’applique parfois aussi à une sorte d’assemblée délibérative. L’Arabie préislamique connaissait déjà la pratique consistant à prendre des décisions après consultation [voir Mad̲j̲lis, et Malaʾ au Suppl.]. Deux passages du Ḳurʾān (III, 153/159: wa-s̲h̲āwirhum fī l-amr, et ¶ XLII, 36/38: wa-amruhum s̲h̲ūrā baynahum) sont couramment cités comme imposant aux souverains le…

, en turc «sans langue», nom donné aux sourds-muets employés au service intérieur ( enderūn) du Palais ottoman, et pendant un certain temps aussi à la Sublime Porte. On les désignait également par le mot persan bīzabān, qui a le même sens. Il y en eut au palais de l’époque de Meḥemmed II à la fin du sultanat. Les renseignements qu’on possède sur leur nombre varient. D’après ʿ Aṭāʾ, il y en avait de trois à cinq attachés à chaque chambre ( kog̲h̲us̲h̲); Ricaut parle «d’environ quarante». Un document de l’époque de Muṣṭafā II (m. 1115/1703), cité par Uzunçarṣili, et qui a trait…

, Abū l-Naṣr Muḥammad b. Masʿūd b. Muḥammad b. ʿAyyās̲h̲, écrivain shīʿite du IIIe/IXe siècle. Il était né à Samarḳand, et l’on prétend que ses ancêtres appartenaient à la tribu de Tamīm. D’abord sunnite, il se convertit encore jeune au S̲h̲īʿisme et étudia sous la direction des disciples de ʿAlī b. al-Ḥasan b. Faḍḍāl (m. 224/ 839; al-Ṭūsī, 93) et de ʿAbd Allāh b. Muḥammad b. Ḵh̲ālid al-Ṭayālisī (al-Astarābādī, 211). Il dépensa un patrimoine de plus de 300 000 dinars pour s’occuper d’érudition et de traditio…

, savant et médecin ottoman, petit-fils du grand-vizir Ḵh̲ayrullāh Efendi et fils de Ḵh̲wād̲j̲a Meḥmed Emīn S̲h̲ukūhī. Né en 1188/1774, il embrassa la carrière religieuse et devint mudarris en 1206/1791-2. Se spécialisant en médecine, il s’éleva rapidement et, en 1218/1803, devint médecin chef du sultan ( ḥekīmbas̲h̲i̊ ou, plus protocolairement, reʾīs-i eṭibbā-i sulṭānī). En 1222/1807, il fut révoqué de cet emploi, mais il fut réintégré en 1232/1817. En 1237/1821, il fut jeté en disgrâce et banni, mais rétabli la même année. En 1241/1826, après la destruction des Janissaires, ¶ il …

(a.), tiré d’ifrand̲j̲ [ q.v.],lit. «adoptant, imitant ou singeant les manières et coutumes des Francs, c’est à dire des Européens». Le terme fut utilisé par le journaliste novateur Ḵh̲alīl al-Ḵh̲ūrī dans sa nouvelle satyrique Way id̲h̲an lastu bi-Ifrand̲j̲ī («hélas ! je ne suis pas un européen»), publiée dans le magazine Ḥadīḳat al-Ak̲h̲bār en 1860 ou peut être auparavant. Le turc alafianga[ lik] de l’italien alla fianca et le persan g̲h̲arbzada[ gī],littéralement «influence occidentale» ont la même signification. Ce dernier terme a été de façon variable traduit …

, ou Serʿasker Kapi̊si̊, nom du ministère de la Guerre dans l’empire ottoman, au XIXe siècle. Après la destruction des Janissaires, en 1241/1826, l’ ag̲h̲a des Janissaires fut remplacé ¶ par un nouvel officier, le serʿasker [ q.v.]; c’était un ancien titre, donné aux chefs d’armée dans le passé; utilisé par Maḥmūd II, il en vint à désigner un officier, qui cumulait les fonctions de commandant en chef et de ministre de la Guerre, chargé spécialement de l’armée nouveau style; en outre, il héritait de l’ ag̲h̲a des Janissaires la responsabilité de la sécurité publique, de la police,…

, écrivain turc ottoman, naquit à Istanbul en 1260/1844; il était le fils d’un pauvre marchand d’étoffes nommé Sulaymān Ag̲h̲a, et d’une Circassienne. Il perdit son père alors qu’il était tout enfant, et fut placé quelque temps comme apprenti chez un boutiquier. Quand il eut dix ans, sa famille alla s’établir à Vidin, où son demi-frère Ḥāfiẓ Ag̲h̲a était le mudīr d’un ḳaḍā. Cependant Ḥāfiẓ tomba en disgrâce, et, en 1859, Aḥmad retourna à Istanbul, où il commença son instruction. En 1277/1861, Ḥāfiẓ Ag̲h̲a, ayant gagné la faveur de Midḥat Pas̲h̲a, fut réint…

, titre ottoman d’origine grecque, de αὐθέντηΣ «seigneur», «maître» (cf. «authentique»), probablement par l’intermédiaire d’une forme vocative dialectale de Byzance, afendi (G. Meyer, Türhische Studien, I, dans SBAk. Wien, 1893, 37; K. Foy, dans MSOS, I/2 (1898), 44. n. 3; Psichari, 408). Le terme était déjà en usage en Anatolie turque aux VIIe et VIIIe/XIIIe-XIVe siècles. Eflākī indique que la fille de Ḏj̲alāl al-dīn Rūmī était connue sous le nom d’Efendipoulo «la fille du maître» (Cl. Huart, Les saints des derviches tourneurs, Paris 1922, II, 429; sur le nom de famille car…

, capitaine ottoman et fondateur d’une famille de derebeys [ q.v.]. Né à Istanbul en 1133/1720-1, il était le fils d’Aḥmad Ag̲h̲a, ḳapid̲j̲i- bas̲h̲i au palais impérial. Dans sa jeunesse, il accompagna son frère aîné Süleymān Pas̲h̲a à Ḏj̲ānīk, où il lui succéda définitivement comme maître du pays, avec le titre, habituel chez les derebeys autonomes, de muḥaṣṣil [ q.v.]. Pendant la guerre russo-turque de 1182-88/1768-74, il détint un certain nombre de commandements militaires. D’abord en service en Géorgie, il fut nommé en d̲j̲umādā II 1183/oct. 1769 à l’étatmajor du serʿasker de Mol…

, en turc zabit, nom donné par les Ottomans à certains fonctionnaires et officiers, et qui se spécialisa par la suite pour désigner les officiers des forces armées. Il semble que, dans son emploi ancien chez les Ottomans, ḍābiṭ ait indiqué une personne chargée d’une affaire ou de sa direction ou (? des finances) d’une localité (par ex. ewḳāf ḍābiṭi, wilāyet ḍābiṭi, etc.; exemples, certains avec des toponymes, dans Halit Ongan, Ankara’nin 1 numarali şer’iye Sicili, Ankara 1958, index, et L. Fekete, Die Siyāqat-Schrift, I, Budapest 1955, 493 sqq.; cf. l’emploi du mot en persan d…

, en turc zabtiyye, nom donné par les Ottomans, à une époque assez tardive, à la police et à la gendarmerie. Les fonctions policières, qui étaient auparavant sous la surveillance de différents officiers de janissaires, furent placées sous la juridiction du serʿasker [ q.v.; voir aussi Bāb-i Serʿaskerī] en 1241/1826, et, en 1262/1846, devinrent une administration autonome, la Ḍabṭiyye mus̲h̲īriyyeti (Luṭfī, VIII, 27-8). Vers le même temps, on créa un conseil de la police ( med̲j̲lis- i ḍabṭiyye) qui fut supprimé par la suite et remplacé par deux corps quasi judiciaires, le dīwān- i ḍabṭi…

«Serviteur des deux Lieux Saints» (La Mekke et Médine), titre employé par un certain nombre de monarques musulmans. Adopté par le sultan ottoman Selīm Ier après la conquête de l’Égypte en 922/1517 et utilisé par plusieurs de ses successeurs, il était considéré, à la fin de l’époque ottomane, comme un titre califal, et l’on disait que Selīm l’avait pris à la suite du dernier calife ʿabbāside du Caire. Cette croyance, qui ne correspond pas à la réalité, paraît bien faire partie de la mythologie du califat ottoman. Autant…

, fils de Hart̲h̲ama b. Aʿyan [ q.v.], occupa un certain nombre de fonctions au service des califes. Dans une lettre d’al-Amīn à Ṣāliḥ datée de s̲h̲awwāl 192/juillet-août 808, un an environ avant la mort de Hārūn al-Ras̲h̲īd, l’héritier présomptif conseille à son frère de confirmer dans son poste Ḥātim b. Hart̲h̲ama, homme, comme son père, d’un loyalisme éprouvé, et de lui confier la garde des palais du calife (al-Ṭabarī, III, 769; cf. F. Gabrieli, Documenti relativi al califfato di al-Amīn in aṭ-Ṭabarī, dans Rend. Lin., sér. VI, vol. III (1927), 203). Al-Amīn le nomma par la su…

, «le puissant d’Égypte». Dans le Ḳurʾān (XII, 30, 51), le titre al-ʿAzīz est donné à l’Égyptien anonyme qui achète Yūsuf, et qui, dans la légende et l’exégèse postérieures, est appelé Ḳifṭīr [ q.v.], d’après le Putiphar biblique. Ce titre paraît s’appliquer à la fonction de premier ministre sous Pharaon, car il est attribué à Yūsuf lui-même quand il parvient à cette dignité (Ḳurʾān, XII, 78, 88). Dans certains dictionnaires arabes, le terme est défini comme désignant le souverain d’Égypte (Miṣr) et d’Alexandrie (Lane, s.v.). D…

, derviche turc qui acquit quelque célébrité à l’époque des Il-Ḵh̲āns. Il aurait été un disciple du célèbre Sari̊ Saltuk [ q.v.], et il est cité à propos des mouvements bābāʾī, bektās̲h̲ī et mewlewī. Ses partisans étaient appelés Baraḳīs; son k̲h̲alīfa était Ḥayrān Emird̲j̲i. Une histoire conservée par Yazi̊d̲j̲i̊og̲h̲lu ʿAlī en fait un prince sald̲j̲ūḳide converti au Christianisme par le patriarche grec, puis ramené à l’Islam par Sari̊ Saltuk, qui lui transmit son pouvoir surnaturel et lui donna le nom de Baraḳ. Les sources arabes le décrivent comme originaire de Tokat ( Būḳāt du text…

, terme employé couramment aux IIe-IIIe/VIIIe-IXe siècles pour désigner les membres de la famille des ʿAbbāsides et parfois leurs partisans et défenseurs. Dès les débuts de l’époque ʿabbāside, il aurait désigné les descendants de Hās̲h̲im b. ʿAbd Manāf [ q.v.], l’ancêtre commun du Prophète, de ʿAlī et d’al-ʿAbbās; l’usage qu’en faisaient ainsi les ʿAbbāsides était interprété comme exprimant une prétention au califat fondée sur la parenté par les mâles avec le Prophète. Van Vloten, suivi par d’autres savants, prouva que le nom avait, …

, journaliste turc qui acquit une célébrité éphémère, en 1909, comme rédacteur en chef du journal Serbestī dans lequel il se livra à de violentes attaques contre le Comité Union et Progrès [voir Ittiḥād we-Teraḳḳī], La responsabilité de son assassinat par un inconnu, sur le pont de Galata, dans la nuit du 6 au 7 avril 1909 (n.s.), fut rejetée sur le Comité à la fois par les libéraux et par l’Union Mahométane [voir Ittiḥād-i Muḥammedī], et ses funérailles provoquèrent des manifestations et des discours hostiles. Une période de tension croissante suivit, pour aboutir à l…

«chef de mille», grade militaire turc. Le terme apparaît très tôt chez les Turcs occidentaux, et est déjà utilisé à propos de la réorganisation militaire qu’aurait opérée Ork̲h̲ān en 729/1328-9 (par ex. Saʿd al-dīn, Tād̲j̲ al-tawārīk̲h̲, I, 40: « onbas̲h̲i̊s, yüzbas̲h̲i̊s et biñbas̲h̲is y furent nommés ...»). Sous la forme miñbas̲h̲i̊, le terme se rencontre aussi chez les Turcs orientaux, et est utilisé, par exemple, pour désigner un grade dans les armées ṣafawides en Perse (v. Minorsky, Tad̲h̲kirat al-mulūk, Londres 1943, 36, 74, 155). Le titre miñbegi, avec un sens similaire, a…

, en persan «extérieur», nom donné aux départements et services extérieurs de la Maison impériale ottomane, par opposition avec les départe-ments intérieurs, connus sous le nom d’ Enderūn [ q.v.]. Le bīrūn était donc le point de rencontre de la cour et de l’État, et, outre les fonctionnaires du palais, il comprenait un certain nombre de hauts fonctionnaires et de dignitaires, chargés des affaires administratives, militaires et religieuses de l’empire. (B. Lewis) Bibliography D’Ohsson, Tableau général de l’ Empire ottoman, VII, Paris 1824, 1-33 Ismail Hakki Uzunçarşilι, Osmanlι dev…

, mot turc signifiant envoyé, de el ou il, pays, peuple ou État, auquel est ajouté le suffixe či (= d̲j̲i) marquant la profession. Dans certains textes turcs orientaux, le mot apparaît pour désigner le maître d’une terre ou d’un peuple; mais sa signification normale a été très tôt celle d’envoyé ou messager, généralement au sens diplomatique, mais quelquefois, dans la littérature mystique, avec un sens religieux figuré. En turc ottoman, il devint le terme courant pour désigner un ambassadeur, en même temps que le terme arabe plus officiel de sefīr. Les sultans ottomans commencèrent d…

Efendi, traducteur turc du XIXe siècle. Né à Üsküdar, il fut formé à la «chambre» des langues [voir Terd̲j̲üme Odasi̊] du ministère des Affaires Étrangères, et occupa par la suite un certain nombre de postes officiels. Il est mentionné comme ayant été consul de Turquie à Tabrīz, puis membre de l’ambassade à Téhéran; en 1876, il fut élu député au premier parlement turc. Il mourut en 1878 du typhus qu’il avait contracté alors qu’il s’occupait de réfugiés de la guerre russo-turque et fut enterré à Üskudar, au cimetière Karacaahmet. Aḥmed Ḥilmi joua un rôle de pionnier comme traducteur …