Search

[English edition] 1. فروسيّة الفروسية هي المجال الذي يهتمّ بمعرفة الخيل بأكملها، نظريّا وعمليّا، بما في ذلك مبادئ علم خلق الخيل، والعناية بها ووضع الحداوات ( البيطرة) ، وسياسة الخيل وهي ترجمة أكثر دقة لمفهوم «équitation» ( الفروسيّة) في اللغات الأوربية الذي يمكن تعريفه باعتباره فنّ التدرب على ركوب الخيل المسرّجة واستعمالها استعمالا صحيحا. أمّا كلمتا «فَراسة» و«فروسة»، وهما أقلّ استعمالا، فتتضمنان المعاني نفسها. وبالرجوع إلى مسارد فهارس المصنفات القديمة مثل فهرست ابن النديم أو الفهارس الشاملة في هذا الموضوع التي قام بتجميعها هامر برقستال Hammer Purgstall في القرن التا…

, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. Ḥasan , the historian, b. 1167/1753, d. 1825 or early 1826, was a descendant of a Ḥanafī family from al-D̲j̲abart [ q.v.]. According to al-D̲j̲abartī the people of that region were very strict in their religion and were inclined to asceticism. Many of them went on foot to the Ḥid̲j̲āz, either as pilgrims or as mud̲j̲āwirūn . They had three riwāḳs , of their own: one in the mosque of Medina, one in the mosque at Mecca, and one in the mosque of al-Azhar at Cairo. The forefather of the Egyptian branch of the family of al…

After the decline of the office of the viceroy ( Nāʾib al-Salṭana ) the Atābak al-ʿAsākir (Commander-in-Chief) of the Mamlūk Army became the most important amīr in the Sultanate. His functions were much broader than the name of his office indicates. For all intents and purposes he had become the sultan’s viceroy. Very frequently the title mudabbir al-mamālik or mudabbir al-mamālik al-islāmiyya was appended to his name. It was common, especially in the Circassian period, for him to succeed the sultan on the throne. (See D. Ayalon, Studies on the Structure of the Mamluk Army , in BSOAS, 1954,…

, (A.), the whole field of equestrian knowledge, both theoretical and practical, including the principles of hippology ( k̲h̲alḳ al-k̲h̲ayl ), the care of horses and farriery ( bayṭara ), and siyāsat al-k̲h̲ayl , a more exact rendering of the concept of “equitation” in European languages, which can be defined as the art of training and using correctly a saddlehorse. The words farāsa and furūsa , more rarely used, embrace the same group of ideas. If we consult the indexes of the classical catalogues, such as the Fihrist of Ibn al-Nadīm or the exhaustive biblio…

, war. i.— Legal Aspect Ḥarb may mean either fighting ( ḳitāl ) in the material sense or a “state of war” between two or more groups; both meanings were implied in the legal order of pre-Islamic Arabia. Owing to lack of organized authority, war became the basis of inter-tribal relationship. Peace reigned only when agreed upon between two or more tribes. Moreover, war fulfilled such purposes as vendetta and retaliation. The desert, adapted to distant raids and without natural frontiers, rendered the Arabs habituated to warfare and fighting became a function of society. Islam, prohibiting …

(under the Mamlūks). These were the sultan’s bodyguard and select retinue. Most of them usually belonged to the corps of the reigning sultan’s freedmen ( mus̲h̲tarawāt , ad̲j̲lāb , d̲j̲ulbān ). Most of the commanders ( amīrs ) rose from the khāṣṣakiyya . They were considered to be the most prestigious body within the Mamlūk military aristocracy, and were the closest to the sultan. Frequent reference is made to their being sent on special missions inside and outside the Mamlūk sultanate, their being appointed govern…

, also Dawātdār , Duwaydār and Amīr Dawāt , the bearer and keeper of the royal inkwell. Under the ʿAbbāsids the emblem of office of the wazīr was an inkwell. The post of dawādār was created by the Sald̲j̲ūḳs, and was held by civilians. Sultan Baybars transferred it to a Mamlūk Amīr of Ten. Under the Baḥrī Mamlūks the dawādār did not rank among the important amīrs, but under the Circassians he became one of the highest amīrs of the sultanate, with the title Grand Dawādār ( dawādār kabīr ), and with a number of dawādārs under him. The office of dawādār ranked among the seven most important office…

(a.), literally “thing possessed”, hence “slave” [for which in general see ʿabd , ḳayna and k̲h̲ādim ], especially used in the sense of military slave”; for these last in various parts of the Islamic world, with the exception of those under the Mamlūk sultanate of Egypt and Syria [see next article], see g̲h̲ulām . Although for many centuries the basis of several Islamic powers, the institution of military slavery can in many ways best be studied within the framework of the Mamlūk sultanate of Egypt and Syria (648-922/1250-151…

, master of audiences or ceremonies, one of the highest dignitaries of the Sald̲j̲ūḳs of Asia Minor (see sald̲j̲ūḳ ). In the Mamlūk kingdom the amīr mad̲j̲lis had charge of the physicians, oculists and the like. The sources do not elucidate the connection between the rank of amir mad̲j̲lis and this particular task, which seems to be of no special importance. Although the rank of amīr mad̲j̲lis was in the early Mamlūk period superior to that of amīr silāḥ [ q.v.], neither of them was of great significance at that time. In the Circassian period the amīr mad̲j̲lis, though inferior to the amīr silāḥ,…

(a.), a collective formation from wāfid “one who comes, makes his way, in a delegation or group”, in the Mamlūk Sultanate applied to troops of varying ethnic origins who came to Egypt and Syria to join the Sultanate’s military forces. There is no better proof for the superiority of the Mamlūk socio-military system over any other military form during a great part of Islamic history than the attitude of the Mamlūk Sultanate to the Mongol warriors and others, such as Kurds, K̲h̲wārazmians, etc. who, for this or that reason, sought and found refuge within its boundaries as Wāfidiyya . The mainly …

(The battle of). The first great trial of strength between the Mamlūks and the Mongols took place more than twenty years after the battle of ʿAyn Ḏj̲ālūt [ q.v.] at Ḥimṣ in 680/1281. Though this battle was won by Ḳalāwūn, the real architect of the victory was undoubtedly Sultan Baybars [ q.v.], who, in the seventeen years of his rule (658/1260-676/1277), built a war-machine which, in spite of the decline it underwent during the four years following his death, proved to be strong enough to break one of the mightiest armies which the Mongol Īlk̲h̲āns ever put into the field. In the battle of ʿAy…

, term used in Ayyūbid and Mamlūk times for a socio-militaiy unit which, during most of the period ot Mamlūk rule, was composed of non-Mamlūks. The sources do not indicate the date of its foundation, and there is no convincing explanation of the meaning of its name (for two different views, see Quatremère, Histoire des Sultans mamlouks , i/2, 200-2 and A. N. Poliak, in BSOAS, x (1940-42), 872). The ḥalḳa had been in existence during most of the Ayyūbid period, being mentioned for the first time in 570/1174 (see H. A. R. Gibb, The armies of Saladin , in Cahiers d’Histoire Égyptienne …

The Burd̲j̲iyya regiment was second in importance only to the Baḥriyya [ q.v.] regiment throughout the history of the Mamlūk sultanate. It was created by Sulṭān al-Manṣūr Ḳalāʾūn, who selected for this purpose 3,700 of his own Mamlūks and quartered them in towers ( abrād̲j̲ , sing. burd̲j̲ ) of the Cairo citadel. Hence its name. The sources mention the creation of this unit only when they sum up Ḳalāʾūn’s career at the end of his rule, without specifying any date. It was composed of Mamlūks belonging to Caucasian peoples ( al-Ḏj̲arkas wa ’l-Āṣ = Circassians and Abk̲h̲āzīs). Al-Maḳrīzī ( Ḵh̲iṭa…

, in Persian mīr āk̲h̲ūr , “high equerry”, one of the highest officials in the court of Oriental princes. Under the Mamlūks the amīr āk̲h̲ūr was the supervisor of the royal stables. He was generally an amīr of a thousand and had under his orders three amīrs of fourty. In the Circassian period he occupied the fourth place among the grand amīrs, cf. A. N. Poliak, Feudalism in Egypt , Syria , etc ., London 1939, 30; D. Ayalon, Studies on the Structure of the Mamluk Army , BSOAS, 1954, 63, 68. (D. Ayalon)

, “great amīr ”, title which had originally been granted in the Mamlūk kingdom to “all those who had seniority in service and in years”. Consequently there was a whole group of amīrs of which every individual was called al-amīr al-kabīr . In the days of S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ūn al-ʿUmarī (752/1352) the title became reserved for the commander-in-chief ( atābak al-ʿasākir ) of the kingdom. From that date onward it became the most common title of the commander-in-chief beside that of his rank. (D. Ayalon) Bibliography M. van Berchem, CIA, l’Égypte, 276, 290, 452, 593 Maḳrīzī, Histoire des Sultans Mamlo…

, The name of Čerkes (in Turkish čerkas , perhaps from the earlier "kerkète", indigenous name: Adi̊g̲h̲e) is a general designation applied to a group of peoples who form, with the Abk̲h̲az [ q.v.], the Abaza (cf. Beskesek Abazā ) and the Ubək̲h̲, the north-west or Abasgo-Adi̊g̲h̲e branch of the Ibero-Caucasian peoples. The ancestors of the Čerkes peoples were known among the ancients under the names of Σινδοί, Κερχεταί, Ζιχγοί, Ζυγοί, etc., and lived on the shores of the Sea of Azov and the Black Sea and in the plains of the Kuban to the south an…

, siege. The following articles deal with siegecraft and siege warfare. On fortification see burd̲j̲ , ḥiṣn , ḳalʿa and sūr . i.— General Remarks Siege warfare was one of the essential forms of warfare when it was a matter of conquest, and not merely of plundering raids, in countries in which, from ancient times, most of the large towns had been protected by walls and where, during the Middle Ages, the open countryside was to an ever increasing extent held by fortresses [see ḥiṣn and ḳalʿa ]. Although the forces available were rarely sufficient to impose a co…

, I. The navy of the Arabs until the time of the Fāṭimids [see Supplement]. II. The navy of the Mamlūks. The Mamlūk sultanate came into being a long time af ter Christian Europe had established its uncontested naval supremacy in the Mediterranean. Throughout that sultanate’s existence this supremacy had been much strengthened. Under such circumstances there was little chance for Mamlūk sea power to demonstrate its existence. Mamlūk naval activities occupy a prominent place in the sources, mainly in connexion w…

a Mamluk regiment in Egypt. Most of the Ayyūbid sultans had mamlūks in their service, but it was only Sulṭān al-Ṣāliḥ Nad̲j̲m al-Dīn Ayyūb (637-47/1240-9) who recruited them in very great numbers. He seized the opportunity of the influx in the Muslim markets of Turkish slaves from the Ḳipčāḳ steppe and neighbouring areas who were uprooted from their homelands by the Mongol advance and created from amongst them a regiment of picked bodyguards numbering between 800 and 1000 horsemen. He called thi…

i. — general In Arabic, the word nafṭ (Persian nafṭ) is applied to the purest form ( ṣafwa ) of Mesopotamian bitumen ( ḳīr —or ḳār — bābilī ). Its natural colour is white. It occasionally occurs in a black form, but this can be rendered white by sublimation. Nafṭ is efficacious against cataract and leucoma; it has the property of attracting fire from a distance, without direct contact. Mixed with other products (fats, oil, sulphur etc.) which make it more combustible and more adhesive, it constituted the basic ingredient of “Greek fire”, a liquid incendiary compo…

, grand master of the armour. In the Mamlūk kingdom he was in charge of the armour-bearers ( silāḥdāriyya ) and supervised the arsenal ( silāḥk̲h̲āna ). It was his duty to bear the sultan’s arms in public ceremonies and to convey them to him in battle and other occasions. In the early Mamluk period the office of amīr silāḥ was not ¶ very high (cf. amīr mad̲j̲lis ); under the Circassians it was the second office among the highest amīrs of the kingdom. The amīr silāḥ had the right of sitting as the raʾs al-maysara in the sultan’s presence. (D. Ayalon) Bibliography L. A. Mayer, Saracenic Heraldry, index D…

The mamlūk upper class constituted an exclusive society. Only a person who himself was born an infidel and brought as a childslave ¶ from abroad, who was converted to Islam and set free after completing his military training and who usually bore a non-Arab name, could belong to that society. These rules implied that the mamlūk upper class should be a non-hereditary nobility, for the sons of the mamlūks and mamlūk amīrs were Muslims and free men by birth, were born and grew within the boundaries of the mamlūk sultanat…

, en persan Mīr Āk̲h̲ūr, «grand connétable», l’un des plus grands officiers de la cour des princes orientaux. Sous les Mamlūks, l’ amīr āk̲h̲ūr avait la surveillance des écuries royales. Il était en général un amīr commandant à mille hommes, et avait sous ses ordres trois amīrs commandant à quarante hommes. A l’époque circassienne, il occupa le quatrième rang parmi les grands amīrs; cf. A. N. Poliak, Feudalism in Egypt, Syria etc., Londres 1939, 30; D. Ayalon, Studies on the structure of the Mamlūk army, dans BSOAS, 1954, 63, 68. (D. Ayalon)

(a.), ensemble des connaissances équestres théoriques et pratiques recouvrant les notions d’hippologie ( k̲h̲alḳ al-k̲h̲ayl), hippiatrique et maréchalerie ( bayṭara), siyāsat al-k̲h̲ayl, qui traduit plus exactement le concept «équitation» des langues européennes, concept que l’on peut définir comme l’art de dresser et utiliser correctement un cheval sous la selle. Les mots farāsa et furūsa, plus rarement employés, recouvrent le même ensemble de notions. Si l’on consulte les index des catalogues classiques, comme le Fihrist d’Ibn al-Nadīm ou les bibliographies exhaust…

, «grand amīr», à l’origine titre octroyé dans le royaume mamlūk à «tous ceux qui avaient vieilli au service de l’État». Aussi y avait-il un grand nombre d’ amīrs dont chacun était appelé al-amīr al-kabīr. A l’époque de S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ūr al-ʿUmarī (752/1352), le titre fut réservé au commandant en chef du royaume ( atābak al-ʿ asākir). Depuis lors, il devint le titre normal du commandant en chef en dehors de celui de son rang. (D. Ayalon) Bibliography M. van Berchem, CIA, L’ Égypte, 276, 290, 452, 593 Maḳrīzī, Histoire des sultans mamlouks, trad. Quatremère, I, 3 Poliak et Ayalon, voir Amīr Āk̲h̲ūr.…

, régiment mamlūk qui, par son importance, venait immédiatement après celui des Baḥriyya [ q.v.], durant toute l’histoire du sultanat mamlūk. Il fut créé par le sultan al-Manṣūr Ḳalāʾūn, qui choisit à cet effet 3700 de ses propres Mamlūks et les logea dans des tours ( abrād̲j̲, sing. burd̲j̲) de la citadelle du Caire; de là, le nom du ¶ régiment. Les sources ne mentionnent la création de cette unité que lorsqu’elles résument la carrière de Ḳalāʾūn à la fin de son règne, sans spécifier aucune date. Le régiment était composé de Mamlūks appartenant aux peuples caucasiens ( al-Ḏj̲arkas wa-l-Āṣ = …

I. — Généralités. En arabe, le mot nafṭ (persan naft) s’applique à la forme la plus pure ( ṣafwa) du bitume de Mésopotamie ( ḳīr – ou ḳār – bābilī). Il est naturellement ¶ blanc. On en rencontre parfois du noir que l’on peut blanchir en le sublimant. Le nafṭ est efficace contre la cataracte et le leucome; il a la propriété d’attirer le feu à distance, sans contact immédiat. Mélangé à d’autres produits (graisses, huile, soufre, etc.) qui le rendent plus comburant et plus adhésif, il constituera l’élément essentiel du «feu grégeois», composition incendiaire liquide …

(a.), littéralement «chose possédée», de là «esclave» [voir en général ʿAbd, Ḳayna et Ḵh̲ādim], spécialement dans le sens d’«esclave militaire» [voir G̲h̲ulām, sauf pour ce qui concerne les mamālīk du sultanat mamlūk d’Égypte et de Syrie sur lequel on verra l’art suivant]. Bien que l’esclavage militaire ait été pendant des siècles la base de plusieurs puissances islamiques, cette institution peut à bien des égards être le mieux étudiée dans le cadre du sultanat d’Égypte et de Syrie (648-922/1250-1517), car on possède dans …

La classe supérieure mamlūke était une société très fermée; ne pouvaient en faire partie que ceux qui, nés infidèles, avaient été capturés à l’étranger dans l’enfance, élevés dans l’esclavage, puis convertis à l’Islam et enfin affranchis après avoir terminé leur formation militaire, et qui, généralement, ne portaient pas un nom arabe. Cette définition impliquait l’impossibilité pour cette noblesse de se transmettre héréditairement, car les enfants des mamlūks et des amīrs mamlūks étaient musulmans et hommes libres de naissance, naissaient et grandissaient à l’int…

(A.) «guerre». I. — Aspect juridique. Ḥarb peut signifier soit combat ( ḳitāl) au sens matériel, soit «état de guerre» entre deux ou plusieurs groupes, les deux sens étaient implicites dans l’ordre juridique de l’Arabie préislamique. A défaut d’autorité organisée, la guerre était devenue la base des relations inter-tribales, et la paix ne régnait que quand deux ou plusieurs tribus étaient convenues de la maintenir. En outre, la guerre servait à l’exercice de la vendetta et des représailles. Le désert, propi…

La plupart des sultans Ayyūbides eurent des mamlūks à leur service, mais ce fut seulement le sultan al-Ṣāliḥ Nad̲j̲m al-dīn Ayyūb (637-47/1240-9) qui les recruta en très grand nombre. Il profita de l’occasion fournie par l’affluence, sur les marchés musulmans, d’esclaves turcs provenant des steppes des Ḳipčāḳ et des régions voisines qui avaient été arrachés de leur patrie par l’avance mongole, et en fit un régiment de gardes du corps d’élite dont le nombre variait de 800 à 1000 cavaliers. Il nomma ce r…

, la marine. I. — La marine arabe jusqu’aux Fāṭimides. (L’article prévu n’étant point parvenu, la Rédaction se voit dans l’obligation de renvoyer le Lecteur au supplément). II. — La marine mamlūke. Le sultanat mamlūk vit le jour longtemps après que l’Europe chrétienne eut établi à son profit, dans la Méditerrané…

Le nom de Čerkesses (en turc čerkas, peut-être de l’ancien «kerkète», nom indigène: Adi̊g̲h̲e) est une désignation générale appliquée à un groupe de peuples qui forment avec les Abk̲h̲az [ q.v.], les Abaza [cf. Beskesek Abaza] et les Ubək̲h̲. la branche Nord-ouest ou ab…

(bataille de —). La première grande épreuve de force entre les Mamlūks et les Mongols eut lieu, plus de vingt ans après la bataille de ʿAyn Ḏj̲ālūt [ q.v.], à Ḥimṣ en 680/1281. Bien qu’elle ait été gagnée …

…

, et aussi Dawātdār, Duwaydār, Amīr Dawāt, nom de celui qui portait et gardait l’encrier royal. Sous les ʿAbbāsides, l’emblème de la charge de wazīr était un encrier. Le poste de dawādār fut créé par les Sald̲j̲ūḳides, et tenu par des civils. Le sultan Baybars le donna à un …

, introducteur des audiences ou maître des cérémonies, l’un des plus hauts dignitaires chez les Sald̲j̲ūḳides d’Asie Mineure [voir Sald̲j̲ūḳ]. Dans le royaume mamlūk, l’ amīr mad̲j̲lis était chargé de la surveillance des médecins, oculistes, etc. Les sources n’expliquent pas le rapport ¶ entre le rang de l’ amīr mad̲j̲lis et cette tâche particulière, qui ne semble pas être d’une grande importance. Bien que le rang d’ amīr mad̲j̲lis l’emportât au début de la période mamlūke sur celui d’ amīr silāḥ [ q.v.], aucun d’eux n’était alors d’une grande conséquence. A l’époque circassienne, l’ amī…

…

, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. Ḥasan, historien, né en 1167/1753, m. en 1825 ou au début de 1826. Il descendait d’une famille ḥanafite d’al-Ḏj̲abart [ q.v.]; d’après al-Ḏj̲abartī lui-même, la population de cette région était très stricte en matière de religion et encline à l’ascétisme; de nombreux Ḏj̲abart allaient à…

…

, siège. Les articles suivants traitent de la guerre de siège. Sur les fortificatiops, voir Burd̲j̲, Ḥiṣn, Ḳalʿa et sūr. I. –– Généralités. La guerre de siège était une des formes essentielles de la guerre, lorsqu’il s’agissait de conquête et non de simples razzias, dans des pays où, depuis …

(a.), collectif formé sur wāfid «celui qui vient, qui fait son chemin, dans une délégation ou un groupe», appliqué dans le sultanat mamlūk aux troupes d’origines ethniques diverses qui vinrent en Égypte et en Syrie pour entrer dans les forces armées du Sultanat. Il n’existe pas de meilleure preuve de la supériorité du système socio-militaire mamlūk sur toute autre forme d’organisation armée, pendant une grande partie de l’histoire musulmane, que l’attitude du Sultanat mamlūk…

, terme employé du temps des Ayyūbides et des Mamlūks pour désigner une unité sociomilitaire qui, durant la majeure partie de la période mamlûke, était composée de non-Mamlūks. Les sources n’indiquent pas la date de sa fondation, et il n’existe pas d’explication convaincante sur la signification de son nom (sur deux points de vue différents, voir Quatremère, Histoire des sultans mamlouks, I/2, 200-2 et A. N. Poliak, dans BSOAS, X (1940-2), 872). La ḥalḳa, qui exista pendant la majeure partie…