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1. Before Easter The apostle Peter apparently came from a Greek-speaking family in Bethsaida. His original name, Simon, is a Greek form of Simeon. His brother Andrew, with whom he worked as a fisherman in Capernaum, had a purely Greek name. Jesus called the brothers, who were at first attracted to John the Baptist, at the beginning of his public ministry (Mark 1:16–18; John 1:35–42). Peter had a leading position among the 12 disciples and was given a new name denoting his character (Mark 3:16 and par.). Derived from Aram. kêpāʾ, this name, research now indicates, does not signify…

1. Concept Up to the end of the 19th century and even beyond, the parousia was mainly treated dogmatically in terms of the coming again of Christ to judge and to reign. The “again,” however, cannot be traced back beyond the Constantinopolitan Creed (381); the Apostles’ Creed and the Nicene Creed (325; Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed) both simply have “come.” What we have, then, is a systematizing at a later stage of statements about the earthly life of Jesus and his expected coming as the exalted Son of Man (Mark 13:26; 14:62) and Lord (1 Thess. 2:19; 4:15). J. Weiss (1863–1914) rejected t…

In the NT the term “apostle” denotes someone who is sent. “Apostolate” designates the task and authority of an apostle. 1. History of the Term “Apostle” In pre-Christian Greek the word apostolos relates to the act of sending or to an object that is sent. The idea of a person who is sent is rare in classical Greek; in the papyri it occurs later. There the emphasis on someone who is commissioned suggests a link with the ancient Near Eastern office of the emissary, in which the envoy authoritatively represents the one who commissioned him. This thought stands behind the only use in the LXX (3 Kgdms. …

The letter to Philemon was one of Paul’s prison letters, possibly written from Ephesus in 53–55. Though sent to an individual, it is not strictly private, for the recipient is called a coworker with a church in his house (vv. 1–2), and Paul writes in association with other fellow workers (1, 23–24). The letter consists chiefly of thanksgiving (4–7) and a petition on behalf of Onesimus (8–21). Traditionally, expositors have found here a plea on behalf of a slave who had either misappropriated funds and run away or had not returned from a commission (an “example …

Millenarianism, or chiliasm, was originally the expectation of a thousand-year reign of salvation in which the elect would reign with Christ before the end of world history. It has now become a comprehensive term for programs with a religious origin or reference that aim at a final future salvation within the world. 1. NT The term “millenarianism” took its origin from the solution that the Book of Revelation proposed for the contradictions that early Christians were experiencing: they were facing severe tribulations, yet they believed in the presen…

1. In early antiquity an idea of charismatic kingship was widespread from Mesopotamia to Germany. This notion ascribed a divine origin to rulers in their responsibility for the cult, which was the basis of public well-being. In Egypt this impulse resulted in the divine monarchy of the pharaoh, who was regarded as the son of Amon-Re and who was venerated, usually after death, only on the basis of his beneficence. Under Ramses II, however, there is evidence for actual worship of a statue of the li…

1. General Features In about a.d. 48/50, and hardly before 40, Paul founded the first Christian church in Europe in Philippi, which, since the decisive Roman battle of 42 b.c., bore the name “Colonia Julia Philippensis.” In the Epistle to the Philippians Paul writes to this church in Greek, although most of the inscriptions from the city are in Latin; he also ignores its military history. The names in the epistle include only one in Latin (“Clement,” 4:3). It seems, then, that most of the members did not belong to the city’s upper Latin stratum. The names give no evidenc…

The term “antichrist,” which occurs in the NT only in 1 John 2:18, 22; 4:3; 2 John 7, was coined by primitive Christianity and presupposes the title “Christ” (Christological Titles). Not found in Paul’s letters, “antichrist” represents an eschatological formulation of the second generation of Christians, who faced both internal and external opposition to the Christ, whom they proclaimed as Lord. In the first century there was still no single term for the immanent eschatological opponent of God, Christ, and the church community. Thus 2 Thess. 2:1–12 refers to “the man of lawlessne…

1. Genre and Place in Religious History As the Book of Revelation itself says in 1:1–2, 9–11, it is a “revelation” (apokalypsis) of Jesus Christ that is meant for Christians and is given through “John.” Though being an epistolary work in dialogue with the churches of Asia Minor (1:4, 11), it has predominantly the features of ancient apocalyptic. The early church used the term “apocalypse” for other Christian texts and for Jewish texts that were received by Christians, for example, the Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch. Finally, the Book of Revelation appeared as the primary represent…

[German Version] Exegetical Findings: that God is the first and the last is affirmed in Isa 41:4; 44:6; 48:12. The rabbis found in the divine epithet “truth” אֱמֶת the first, middle, and last letters of the Hebrew alphabet ( Mek. Ex. 23.13b; Gen. R. 81.2). Revelation offers Greek alphabetical symbolism: God, the Beginning and the End, as Alpha and Omega (the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet) links every word and – since the letters also stand for numbers – every number to himself. He, the ruler of all and maintainer of all ( pantokrator), lays claim to every statement and …

1. OT In the Near East, anointing is almost as essential as eating and drinking, with the three often occurring together in cuneiform texts. We also find anointing in many cultic and legal records. In the OT the main Hebrew word for “anointing” is māšaḥ, with šemen used most often for “oil.” Although anointing appears in OT texts of various provenance (e.g., Gen. 28:18; Exodus 40), its primary emphasis is in connection with the appointing of the king (e.g., 2 Sam. 2:4; 5:3). In David’s dynasty anointing quickly established itself as a separate action (1 Kgs. 1:39; 2 Kgs. 11:12; 23:30), a…

1. First Peter The Epistle of 1 Peter is the earliest extant writing associating itself with Peter. Because the ecclesiastical and cultural situation reflected in the letter suggests it was written during the period after a.d. 70, scholars since the 19th century have generally assumed deutero-Petrine authorship. F. C. Baur (1792–1860) viewed it as a mediation text between Jews and Pauline Christianity, though one 20th-century line of thought viewed it more as a deutero-Pauline writing. Recent scholars have uncovered several elements suggesting a more independent origin. ¶ Although…

[English Version] I. Religionswissenschaftlich S.G. ist als Auszeichnung eines einzelnen Menschen zu unterscheiden von der Gotteskindschaft mehrerer Personen oder von Gruppen (z.B. der Israeliten). Dem ntl. Titel liegt im Kontext davidischer Messianität die Verheißung 2Sam 7,14a zugrunde (Messias/Messianismus: II.,2.). Gott sagt Salomo väterliche Fürsorge zu und bestellt ihn zu seinem irdischen Repräsentanten. Ps 2,7 (vgl. Ps 89,27f.; 110,1–3) leitet daraus die Weltherrschaft des israelit. Königs a…

[German Version] I. Religious Studies Son of God as a title applied to an individual must be distinguished from children of God (Child of God) applied to several individuals or a group (e.g. the Israelites). The New Testament title alludes to Davidic messiahship, based on 2 Sam 7:14a (Messiah: II, 2), where God promises Solomon fatherly oversight and appoints him as his representative on earth. Ps 2:7 (cf. Pss 89:27f.*; 110:1–3) uses that text to assert the worldwide dominion of the king of Israel. The “begetting” a…

[English Version] I. Neues Testament Sozialstrukturen, die ältere Personen mit Aufgaben für die Gemeinschaft betraut sehen, sind im antiken Mittelmeerraum weit verbreitet. Nach der Erinnerung Israels erhielten sie in dessen Frühgesch. bes. Bedeutung (Num 11–1Sam 30,26ff.; 2Sam 2,4; 12,17; Älteste: Altes Testament). Die Betrauung mit regionalen und lokalen Rechtsfunktionen hielt sich durch (gespiegelt in Dtn 19,12; vgl.11QT XLII 13f.), wenn auch oft abgeschwächt. Um die ntl. Zeit konnten das Synhedri…

[German Version] I. New Testament Social structures that entrusted older individuals with functions on behalf of the community were widespread in the ancient Mediterranean world. In the memory of Israel, they were particularly important in the early history of the people (Num 11– 1 Sam 30:26ff.; 2 Sam 2:4; 12:17; Elders in the Old Testament). Their entrustment with local and regional judicial functions continued (reflected in Deut 19:12; cf. 11QT XLII 13f.) albeit often in diminished form. In the Ne…

Overview Eschatology is traditionally the doctrine of the last things (from Gk. eschatos, denoting what is last in time). It is of particular interest in modern theology, which speaks of a new phase and of the “eschatologizing” of all theology. At the same time, the haziness of the term (it is also used outside theology) and its varied use seem to make it an example of linguistic confusion in theology. The word was used first by the strict Lutheran theologian Abraham Calovius (1612–86), who, at the end of his 12-volume dogmatics, dealt with death, resurrection, t…

[German Version] I. History of Religions – II. Old Testament – III. Judaism – IV. Christianity – V. Dogmatics – VI. Islam I. History of Religions The terms messiah and messianism derive from the Hebrew word māšîaḥ, “anointed one.” Under the impact of foreign rule in Israel and Judah beginning in the 6th century bce, the word took on a new meaning: the Messiah was expected to bring deliverance from foreigners and oppressors, and in part to inaugurate the eschatological age of salvation (see II–IV below). The word's meaning was expanded in the …

[German Version] I. Primitive Christianity – II. History of Doctrine – III. Dogmatics – IV. Forms of Extra-ecclesial Christology I. Primitive Christianity 1. History of research and preliminary questions a.  The term Christology, which originated in the early 17th century, was coined for systematic reflection concerning Jesus Christ. Initially, conceptions and Christologies dealing with the salvation history of the whole Bible beginning with the Old Testament were as highly valued as the New Testament (cf. e.g. G.F. Händel's Messiah). NT Christology went its own way…