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[German Version] Because Heraclitus of Ephesus did not found a school, anyone who was in any way dependent upon him in philosophical matters could be regarded as a Heraclitean (cf. D.L. IX 6). In particular the circle around Kratylos, to which also Plato was attracted at times after 399 bce, was actually known as such. This group surpassed Heraclitus with the theory that all things perceived are in a constant flux and unfit for cognizance. The Academy countered such skepticism with the doctrine of ideas (Arist. Metaph. 987a32–34, 1010a7ff., 1078b12–17). Aristotle ( Problemata 908a30, 9…

[German Version] of Akragas in Sicily (probably born c. 491, died c. 430 bce), a multifaceted Greek philosopher concerned to heal and set things right as an itinerant orator, physician, priest and magician. To some extent, his biography was embellished (the account of his leap into Etna). Empedocles wrote On Nature (2 books) and Purifications. Apart from fragments, two major passages from his first work have been directly transmitted; having only been found recently, they complete our knowledge of Emp…

[German Version] I. Terminology – II.#x2002;Ancient Near East and Old Testament – III.#x2002;Greco-Roman Antiquity – IV. Judaism – V. Christianity – VI. History of Modern Science I. Terminology Cosmology is a specific culture's orientation in space and time as conceived in words, images, and rituals. The orientation combines signs that can be perceived with signs that are set. Only in the complementarity of the construed other does the “natural” phenomenon acquire the meaning of a significant marke…

[German Version] (c. 570 bce, Samos – c. 480 bce). After many years as an itinerant teacher, Pythagoras migrated to Croton in southern Italy, where he exercised great influence as a charismatic teacher. He left no written works, but a century later (as was the case with Plato) people began to capitalize on his great reputation, with the result that it is hardly possible to separate Pythagoras from his effective history; this Pythagorean tradition is hagiographic and makes any historically reliable statem…

[German Version] (between 430 and 425 bce, Athens – after 355), historian and admirer of Socrates. Xenophon came to know Socrates after 410; after 401 he accompanied various military expeditions, especially Spartan, and was therefore banished. His literary oeuvre comprises historical, ethical, technical, and Socratic works; it was very popular in antiquity and has survived intact. In his historical works, Xenophon in part continued the history of Thucydides, with a predilection for the Spartan way of life. Among the works in the second group, his Polity of the Spartans was a contri…

[German Version] (c. 130 – c. 68 bce) was a Platonist and a pupil of Philo of Larissa, with whom he broke in the year 87 at the latest. In 79/78, Cicero heard him lecture in Athens; occasionally he traveled with Lucullus. The sources mention four of his works. It is unclear why he broke with Philo, whose Skepticism he had long supported, and took up Stoic ideas. …

[German Version] Hellenistic Philosophy, designation for the philosophy of the period stretching from Alexander the Great's death (323 bce) to the death of Cleopatra (30 bce). In spite of this blanket definition, it is taken to apply not to all philosophies of this period but rather to Epicureanism, Stoicism, and the ubiquitous skeptic tradition (Skepticism). The first direction of philosophy is representedin particular by Epicurus; the most prominent representatives of the Stoics were Zeno of Citium and Chrysippus of S…

[German Version] (c. 570 bce, Colophon – c. 475 bce), philosopher and poet. Around 545 Xenophanes emigrated to the West, where he lived as an itinerant rhapsodist. Many surviving quotations come from his Silloi (“Satires”). He attacked the cult of victorious athletes as well as Homer and Hesiod, especially for their portraits of the gods, criticized anthropomorphisms (V), and rejected divination. Conversely he demanded honors for wise individuals like himself, recommended civilized behavior and edification as guidelines for wri…

[German Version] I. Historiography of Philosophy The Pre-Socratics include all Greek thinkers prior to c. 400 …

[German Version] (c. 371 bce, Eresos, Lesbos – 286 bce, Athens), philosopher, student of Aristotle, whom he followed on his journeys after Plato’s death (347) and succeeded as head of the Peripatetic school in 322. Theophrastus was a renowned teacher and is reported to have had 2,000 students. Given that the catalogue of his works contains 225 titles, covering many fields, he clearly had enormous influence. In the 17th century, his work on moral characters inspired the literary genre of the character stu…

[German Version] In the broad sense, all who were influenced by Pythagoras were Pythagoreans, which would include even Empedocles. In the narrow sense, the term covers only the disciples of Pythagoras who belonged to his school or at least were associated with it, since full membership required a lengthy probationary period and a drastic change in lifestyle. In the first decades after the school was founded as ¶ an aristocratic secret society, it exercised substantial political influence – initially in Croton, but after c. 500 …

[German Version] I. Philosophy While studying in Athens, Plutarch was converted to Platonism by Ammonius. Later he maintained a philosophical school in his home town, where the students read Plato but were exposed to other philosophical schools as well, especially the Stoics and Epicureans (Epicureanism). Plutarch had good contacts with some renowned contemporary philosophers; like many others, he cultivated philosophy as the art of living a life focused on happiness (II). In antiquity more than 260 works were ascribed to him. A good half of them were devo…

[English Version] . Pythagoreer (P.) sind im weiteren Sinne alle, die von Pythagoras geprägt waren, darunter dann freilich auch Empedokles. Im engeren Sinne gelten als P. nur diejenigen Anhänger des Pythagoras, die zu seiner Schule gehörten oder damit wenigstens assoziiert waren; denn für die Vollmitgliedschaft wurde eine längere Probezeit und eine einschneidende Änderung des Lebensstils verlangt. Die Schule, ein aristokratisch geprägter Geheimbund, übte in den ersten Jahrzehnten nach ihrer Grün…

[English Version] von Kolophon (um 570 v.Chr. Kolophon – um 475 v.Chr.), Philosoph, wanderte um 545 in den Westen aus und wirkte dort als wandernder Rhapsode. Viele erhaltene Zitate stammen aus seinen Silloi (»Spottgedichte«). X. wandte sich gegen den Kult siegreicher Athleten sowie gegen Homer und Hesiod, bes. wegen ihrer Götterdarstellungen, kritisierte Anthropomorphismen (: V.) und lehnte die Mantik ab. Im Gegenzug verlangte er Ehren für Weise wie ihn selbst, empfahl als Leitfaden der Dichtung g…

[English Version] (ca.570 v.Chr. Samos – ca.480 v.Chr.), nach längeren Lehr- und Wanderjahren ca.530 Übersiedlung nach Kroton in Unteritalien, entfaltete als charismatischer Lehrer dort großen Einfluß. Geschrieben hat er nichts. Aber 100 Jahre später begann man in der Nachfolge Platos, sein großes Ansehen zu stilisieren, mit der Folge, daß P. von seiner Wirkungsgesch. kaum zu unterscheiden war; die Überlieferung über ihn ist hagiographischer Art und erlaubt nur wenige hist. zuverlässige Aussagen.…

[English Version] (ca.371 Eresos [Lesbos] – 286 v.Chr.), Philosoph, Schüler des Aristoteles, dem er nach Platos Tod (347) auf seine Reisen folgte und von dem er 322 in Athen die Leitung des Peripatos übernahm. Th. war ein berühmter Lehrer und soll 2000 Hörer gehabt haben. Zumal sein Werkverzeichnis vielfältige Themen betrifft und 225 Titel umfaßt, entfalte…

[English Version] (ca.45 n.Chr. Chaironeia – vor 125 n.Chr.) I. Philosophie Beim Studium in Athen wurde P. von Ammonios für den Platonismus gewonnen. Später unterhielt er in seiner Heimatstadt eine philos. Schule, in der man v.a. Plato las, sich aber auch mit anderen philos. Richtungen auseinandersetzte, zumal mit den Stoikern (Stoizismus) und Epikureern (Epikureismus). P. hatte gute Kontakte zu einigen namhaften Philosophen seiner Zeit und pflegte wie viele andere die Philos. als Kunst einer auf Glück/Glückseligkeit (: II) bedachten Lebensführung.…

[English Version] I. Philosophiegeschichtlich V. bez. alle griech. Denker bis ca.400 v.Chr., die etwas zu dem beigetragen haben, was hernach Philosophie genannt wurde, v.a. Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Pythagoras und seine Schule, Xenophanes von Kolophon, Heraklit, Parmenides, Zenon, Melissos, Empedokles, Anaxagoras, die Atomisten (Atomismus: I.) und weitere Naturphilosophen (Naturphilosophie), aber auch die Sophisten (Sophistik). Der Ausdruck kam Ende des 18.Jh. auf und gewann durch die Philos…

[English Version] von Athen (zw. 430 und 425 – nach 355 v. Chr.), Historiker und Sokratiker, nach 410 mit Sokrates bekannt, ab 401 Teilnahme an verschiedenen Feldzügen, bes. an spartanischen, deshalb 394 verbannt. Sein lit. Werk umfaßt hist., päd.-ethische und technische sowie sokratische Schriften, war in der Antike sehr beliebt und ist vollständig erhalten. In den hist. Schriften führt X. u.a. die Gesch. des Thukydi…