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Catechesis and Catechetics

(3,702 words)

Author(s): Bienert, Wolfgang A. | Fraas, Hans-Jürgen | Schoberth, Ingrid | Schweitzer, Friedrich | Phan, Peter
[German Version] I. History – II. Practical Theology – III. Latin America, Asia, Africa I. History 1. Early Church. The verb κατήχειν/ katḗchein originally denoted the oral transmission of a message in the sense of “tell, inform.” In Paul and early Christian literature it usually means “teach, instruct” (Gal 6:6; Lat. catechizare); in contrast to glossolalia, it refers to intelligible speech (1 Cor 14:19; Luke 1:4) such as instruction in the law (Rom 2:18) or in the teaching (“the way”) of the Lord (Acts 18:25). In t…

Psychology of Learning

(833 words)

Author(s): Schweitzer, Friedrich
[German Version] I. The Term The psychology of learning is a subdiscipline of psychology that also developed as a science during the 20th century. It is guid…

Education

(15,718 words)

Author(s): Grethlein, Christian | Zenkert, Georg | Harich-Schwarzbauer, Henriette | Fox, Michael V. | Klauck, Hans-Josef | Et al.
[German Version] I. Concept – II. Philosophy – III. Greco-Roman Antiquity – IV. Bible – V. Church History – VI. Ethics – VII. Practical Theology and Pedagogy – VIII. Judaism – IX. Islam I. Concept Traditionally, “education” has denoted the intentional interaction of adults with the younger generation in order-usually-to influence them positively; whether it makes sense to speak of education when negative goals are deliberately pursued is …

Bollnow, Otto Friedrich

(193 words)

Author(s): Schweitzer, Friedrich
[German Version] (Mar 14, 1903, Stettin – Feb 7, 1991, Tübingen) studied in Berlin, received his doctorate in physics in 1925 from Göttingen, with further studies of philosophy with Georg Misch and H. Nohl; he taught in the Odenwald School, habilitated in philosophy in 1931, became professor of pedagogy in Gießen in 1939, in Mainz in 1946, and held a chair in philosophy in Tübingen from 1953. Bollnow's publications included treatments of history (on Romanticism, the philosophy of W. Dilthey), the systematic philosophy of pedagogy (the philosophy of life, existentialism, linguistic philosophy, ethics, anthropology and anthropological pedagogy, etc.) and practical pedagogy (e.g., on the school). His approach to the philosophy of pedagogy, which he understood as an alternative to the dominant theory of education in the humanities, attracted attention far beyond Germany, including Asia (Japan, Korea). Bollnow's significance for theology and religious education, which grows out of hi…

Example

(1,226 words)

Author(s): Schweitzer, Friedrich | Lachmann, Rainer
[German Version] I. Dogmatics – II. Ethics – III. Education I. Dogmatics “Example” is not a term commonly used in dogmatics. It is probably most often used negatively in the context of Christology in order to preclude a merely ethical interpretation of the work of Christ (exemplary Christology): the “ salvific work” of Jesus Christ is at variance with every attempt to see him as a mere “ethical example” (Härle, 315). This remains true even though we find that, in many cases, “example” is used in the NT in a positive sense (Lips). Terms related to “example,” but which should be clearly disti…

Psychology

(6,026 words)

Author(s): Heine, Susanne | Murken, Sebastian | Schweitzer, Friedrich | Fraas, Hans-Jürgen
[German Version] I. What Is Psychology? The psyche (Soul: IV) as the object of psychology is accessible only through a theory that attempts to obtain a cognitive grasp of the inner life and experience of human beings (thinking, imagining, wishing, feeling). As “citizens of two worlds” (I. Kant), human beings confront the psychophysical problem existentially and cognitively: how can they conceive of themselves – being both rational animals and cognitive subjects – as unitary persons? To be considered …

Organization

(1,260 words)

Author(s): Schweitzer, Friedrich
[German Version] I. Social Sciences – II. Social Ethics – III. Practical Theology I. Social Sciences Organization in the broadest sense refers to the activity of ordering, arranging, administering, etc., and in the sense of self-organization, autopoiesis, etc. the process by which systemic structures develop, including in nature or in the field of natural science. As a sociological and economic concept, organization denotes an insti-¶ …

Socialization

(1,371 words)

Author(s): Bochinger, Christoph | Mette, Norbert | Schweitzer, Friedrich
[German Version]

Pluralism

(4,777 words)

Author(s): Gantke, Wolfgang | Haigis, Peter | Schweitzer, Friedrich | Nipkow, Karl Ernst | Bornhauser, Thomas | Et al.
[German Version] I. Religious Studies Pluralism arises from the ineradicable diversity (Unity and diversity) of the world, whereas monism presupposes the unity of the world and views this diversity as nothing more than an illusion or an antecedent stage on the road to “ultimate” unity. Classical phenomenology of religion, following R. Otto, considered religious pluralism to reflect diverse manifestations of the singular Holy in various religions (Otto; Gantke, Begriff). This form of religious pluralism presupposes a common basis of all religions. Today’s pluralistic theology …

Time

(10,035 words)

Author(s): Mohn, Jürgen | Koch, Klaus | Frey, Jörg | Zachhuber, Johannes | Mesch, Walter | Et al.
[German Version] I. Religious Studies 1. General. The words for time denote in different languages, according to their etymological derivation and symbolic semantic field, different ways of dividing natural and cultural forms of progression and sequences of events into parts separated and distinguished from one another. The German word for time,

School Reform

(761 words)

Author(s): Schweitzer, Friedrich
[German Version] The term school reform, or more broadly educational reform, is often limited to particular epochs, like the ambitious reforms of the 1960s. In fact the history of school reform goes back as far as the history of schools and the critique of schools: schools can and should get constantly better and are therefore permanently subject to reform. In school reform, currently age’s dominant notions of culture and education (Education/Formation) and of the life of individuals and society come to the fore. The reforms of Charlemagne with their emphasis on Christ…

Education/Formation

(5,784 words)

Author(s): Zenkert, Georg | Preul, Reiner | Schweitzer, Friedrich | Leschinsky, Achim
[German Version] I. Terminology – II. History – III. Philosophy – IV. Philosophy of Religion, Dogmatics, Ethics – V. Practical Theology and Education – VI. Social History I. Terminology This article deals with formative education, corresponding to the German term Bildung (cf. Fr. formation). (The related…

Biography

(1,913 words)

Author(s): Jödicke, Ansgar | Barbour, John D. | Schweitzer, Friedrich
[German Version] I.  History of Religion – II.  Biography and Religion – III.  Autobiography and Religion – IV.  Practical Theology and Education I. History of Religion The term biography denotes the life history of an individual, both in regard to its external course and in regard ¶ to spiritual and mental development. In a narrower sense biography is the narrative, whether oral or written, of curricula vitae. It is not always possible to separate it from the genre of legend of more episodic structure. In contrast to mythical narratives or heroic epics, religious biography relies on an interest in the individuality of the protagonist and in this reflects the respective degree of a culture's individualization. The question of whose biography is writ…

Obedience

(2,323 words)

Author(s): Gantke, Wolfgang | Beutler, Johannes | Slenczka, Notger | Schweitzer, Friedrich | Sieckmann, Jan-R.
[German Version] I. Religious Studies – II. Bible – III. Dogmatics – IV. Education and Ethics – V. Law I. Religious Studies Emphasis on the phenomenon known as obedience varies among religions, but wherever h…

Learning

(880 words)

Author(s): Schweitzer, Friedrich
[German Version] I. Concept and History – II. The Present – III. Religious Education and Theology I. Concept and History It has often been observed that the term learning is highly ambiguous, in large part because until recently it has only been used colloquially. Since ancient times, the shifting concepts of learning have derived from the concepts of teaching and instruction, as well as the concepts of education, formation (Education/Formation), ¶ and school. The concepts of knowledge and understanding (Epistemology) debated in Greek philosophy (Sophistic schoo…

Psychology of Adolescence

(1,677 words)

Author(s): Kim, Hye-On | Schweitzer, Friedrich
[German Version] I. General It is generally recognized today that not just our everyday talk of “adolescence” and “youth” but also our concept of adolescent psychology involves a “social construct.” Psychology no longer views its specialized knowledge as a direct, veridical representation of the world. Psychologists are incre…

Vocational Education

(88 words)

Author(s): Schweitzer, Friedrich
[German Version] The theory of vocational or business education is a subdiscipline of educational theory (Education, Theory of). While its historical roots, for example in the various trades, can be traced to antiquity and above all the Middle Ages, it established itself as a scientific discipline only with the development of the voc…

Education, Theory of

(7,852 words)

Author(s): Nipkow, Karl Ernst | Koerrenz, Ralf | Tenorth, H.-Elmar | Schweitzer, Friedrich
[German Version] I. The Term – II. History – III. Present-Day Emphases – IV. Significance for Theology I. The Term The expression “theory of education” (or: “education theory and methodology” – Ger. Pädagogik) serves as a “collective term for all theoretical and practical endeavors in respect of education. As a theory, it refers to the essence of the teaching(s) or science(s) ‘about’ and ‘for’ education, and also to educationally significan…

Piaget, Jean

(396 words)

Author(s): Schweitzer, Friedrich
[German Version] (Aug 9, 1896, Neuchâtel – Sep 16, 1980, Geneva). After studying largely as an autodidact, he received a doctorate in natural science in 1918 at Neuchâtel, after which he worked in various psychological laboratories in Zürich and Paris (beginning work with Alfred Binet in 1919). From 1921 he held various teaching positions and professorships (sometimes concurrent) in Geneva, Neuchâtel, and Paris in the natural sciences, psychology and sociology; he also taught within the context of UNESCO. He was one of the most influential psychologists and students of cognition of the 20th century. While still in his 20s and 30s he published seminal works on developmental child psychology (thought, language, world view, morality). His later works were even more influential in laying the foundations of genetic structuralism; in them he interpreted the ontogenesis of human intelligence as a gradually unfolding development in which the organism and the environment interact: the foundations of human cognition laid in early childhood (sensorimotor stage); creative interaction with the world dominated by childhood fantasy (preoperational stage); concrete cognition during the child’s elementary school years (operational stage); and finally the stage of formal operations, not attained by everyone. Piaget’s theories, which claim to be universally applicable, are still respected throughout the world but have also been subjected to critical discussion. Theologically relevant have been his influence on the psychology of moral development (L. Kohlberg) and the psychology of religion (Fritz Oser, James W. Fowler) and his studies on symbol formation and the development of a worldview. His e…

Behavioral Research

(1,507 words)

Author(s): Schweitzer, Friedrich | McLean, Margaret R.
[German Version] I. Concept, History of Doctrine – II. Science – III. Behavioral Research and Ethics, Practical Theology and Pedagogy I. Concept, History of Doctrine Today, behavioral research or ethology, which also includes behaviorism, represents an increasingly ramified field of research that is particularly determined by biology and evolutionary concepts (Evolution). Sub-disciplines include: behavioral physiology (neurological and endocrinological), behavioral phylogenesis and ontogenesis, the investigation of learning processes, …
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