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[English edition] الشّام هو المنطقة التي تسمّى «سوريا» في العصر الحديث، وكلمة «الشّام» تعني في الأصل الاشتقاقيّ «المنطقة اليسرى»؛ لأنّ المتكلّم في الجزيرة العربيّة الغربيّة أو الوسطى، كان يُعتبَر في الاستعمال العربيّ القديم مواجها للشّمس المشرقة، فتكون …

[English edition] أبو جعفر محمد بن جرير بن يزيد الطّبريّ عالم موسوعي، جمعت معارفه بين العلم بالسّنن والعلم بالأحكام، لكنّه اشتهر أكثر بكونه عالما متميّزا في التاريخ وأيّام الناس، ومفسّرا للقرآن خلال القرون الثلاثة أو الأربعة الأولى للإسلام. ولد في شتاء سنة 224–5/839 بآمل، وتُوُفِّي ببغداد سنة 310هـ/923م. 1. حياته تجدر الإشارة بدءا إلى أنّ أعمال الطبري …

[English edition] مكّة (ويقال لها بالإنڤليزية «Mecca» في المعهود المتعارف، وبالفرنسيّة «La Mecque»)، هي أقدس مدينة في الإسلام، فيها ولد النبيّ محمد وعاش 50 عاما تقريباً، وفيها توجد الكعبة [انظر ه]. 1. عصرا ما قبل الإسلام وصدر الإسلام 1.1 الوصف الجغرافي تقع مكة في الحجاز على بعد نحو 72 كم، باتجاه الداخل من ميناء جدة [انظره] على البحر الأحمر، في خطّ العرض 21 ° 27 ‹شمالا وخطّ الطول 39 ° 49 ‹شرقا. وهي الآن عاصمة المناطق الإداريّة لمكة في المملكة العربيّة السعودية، ويتراوح عدد سكانها العادي بين 200.000 و300.000 نسمة ويمكن أن يزيد هذا العدد تقريباً بمليون ونصف أو مليونين أثناء موسم الحج السنويّ. وتقع مك…

[English edition] ينتمي السلاجقة إلى سلالة تركيّة في إسلام العصر الوسيط، حكمت بطريقة مباشرة أو عن طريق أمراء تابعين لها وهي في أوج قوّتها خلال القرنين الخامس والسادس هجريّا / الحادي عشر والثاني عشر ميلاديّاـ مناطق واسعة من آسيا الغربيّة في بلدان ما وراء النهر وفي فرغانة وسماريش وخوارزم شرقاً إلى الأناضول وسوريا والحجاز من جهة الغرب. ومن صميم ما سُمّيَ امبراطوريّة السلاجقة العُظمى، حافظت السلالات التابعة لعائلة السلاجقة على مناطق مثل كرمان(إلى نهاية القرن السادس الهجري / الثّاني عشر الميلادي) وسوري…

[English edition] هو الكنية ثمّ تغيّر معناه في الإسلام فأصبح يشير إلى اللقب التّشريفي (جمعه ألقاب) ولمزيد من المعلومات حول أصل الكلمة، انظر لـ.كايتاني (L. Caetani)وج. غبرييالي (G. Gabriele) Onomasticon arabicum. i. Fonte-introduzione, Rome 1915, 144–5 ولمزيد المعلومات حول مكانتها في نمط تكوين الأسماء الإسلامية انظر ism. ويبدو أنّ اللقب كان في البداية كنية أواسما مستعارًا يعبّر عن انطب…

, term which may be translated approximately as chamberlain, used in Muslim countries for the person responsible for guarding the door of access to the ruler, so that only approved visitors may approach him. The term quickly became a title corresponding to a position in the court and to an office the exact nature of which varied considerably in different regions and in different periods. Basically the Master of Ceremonies, the ḥād̲j̲ib often appears as being in fact a superintendent of the Palace, a chief of the guard or a righter of wrongs, s…

, Abū Isḥāḳ Muḥammad b. Hārūn al-Ras̲h̲īd , ʿAbbāsid caliph, reigned 218-27/833-42, son of the caliph Hārūn by a slave concubine Mārida. During the reign of his brother and predecessor al-Maʾmūn [ q.v.], al-Muʿtaṣim achieved a reputation as a skilful commander in Anatolia and as gover…

, the name of two places in India. 1. A port on the southwestern coast of the Kāt́hiāwāŕ peninsula, in lat. 21° 28′ N. and long 70° 14′ E., formerly coming within the native state of D̲j̲unāgaŕh [ q.v.] and with a Muslim local chief there tributary to the Nawwāb of D̲j̲unāgaŕh; the mosque there carries a date 785/1383. Bibliography Imperial gazetteer of India 2, xvii, 180. 2. A town in the former British Indian territory of Rajputana, within the native state of Kotah, in lat. 25° 20′ N. and long. 70° 31′ E. and 44 miles/70 km.…

(p.), the term applied to the days of abstinence from eating meat introduced by the Mug̲h̲al emperor of India, Akbar (963-1014/1556-1605 [ q.v.]). His chronicler Abu ’l-Faḍl ʿAllāmī [ q.v.] notes in his Āʾīn-i Akbarī (tr. H. Blochmann, i, 51-2, more accurately tr. in Shireen Moosvi, Episodes in the life of Akbar. Contempora…

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, the name of a Rād̲j̲pūt tribe of Lower Sind in mediaeval Islamic times. Their origins are shrouded in mystery, but they are first mentioned in Muslim historians’ account of Maḥmūd of G̲h̲azna’s return from his attack on Somnāth in 416/1026 [see sūmanāt ]. For the next three centuries, they were the leading power in Lower Sind, but in the 8th/14th century their domination was challenged by the rival tribe of the Sammās [ q.v.]. Despite attempts by the Tug̲h̲luḳid Sultan of Dihlī, Fīrūz S̲h̲āh (III), to aid the Sumerās, the Sammās finally emerged triumphant over their…

, apparently the grandson of the last Umayyad governor of K̲h̲urāsān Naṣr b. Sayyār [ q.v.] and rebel against the ʿAbbāsid caliphate in the opening years of the 9th century A.D. In 190/806 Rāfiʿ led a rising in Samarḳand which turned into a general rebellion throughout Transoxania against the harsh rule and financial exploitation of the caliphal governor of K̲h̲urāsān. ʿAlī b. ʿĪsā b. Māhān [see ibn māhān ]. As well as receiving support from the local Iranian population, Rāfiʿ secured help ¶ from the Turks of the Inner Asian steppes, the Tog̲h̲uz-Og̲h̲uz [see g̲h̲uzz ] and Ḳarluḳ [ q.v.]. Hārūn al-Ras̲h̲īd sent against him the commander Hart̲h̲ama b. Aʿyan [ q.v.], and was about to take charge of the campaign against Rāfiʿ personally when he died at Ṭūs in 193/809. Only after Hārūn’s death did Rāfiʿ surrender to the successor as ʿAbbāsid governor in the East, al-Maʾmūn, and receive from him amān or pardon, after which Rāfiʿ fades from historical mention.…

, a Balūč tribe of modern Pakistan, living partly in the Indus valley plains of the Dēra G̲h̲āzī Ḵh̲ān District of the Pand̲j̲āb [see dērad̲j̲āt ], and partly in the Mārī and Drāgal hills of the Sulaymān Mountains range and the upland plateaux of S̲h̲am and Paylāwag̲h, extending as far west as the modern Loralai District of northeastern Balūčistān. ¶ …

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, S̲h̲ūs̲h̲tar , Arabie form Tustar , a town of southwestern Persia in the mediaeval Islamic province of Ahwāz [ q.v.] and the modern one ( ustān ) of K̲h̲ūzistān (lat. 32° 03’ N., long. 48° 51’ E.). It stands on a cliff to the west of which runs the river Kārūn [ q.v.], the middle course of which begins a few miles north of the town. This position gives the town considerable commercial and …

, a city in the delta region of the Amū Daryā [ q.v.] or Oxus river of K̲h̲wārazm [ q.v.]which was for some four centuries, from Mongol times onwards, the capital of the province. After the Mongols had totally destroyed the former capital of K̲h̲wārazm, Gurgand̲j̲ [ q.v.] in 618/1221, the conquerors founded a new city on a …

(t.), a word common to all Turkic languages (cf. W. Radloff, Versuch eines Wörterbuches der Türk-Dialecte , St. Petersburg 1888-1911, i/2, cols. 1015-16), found as early as Ork̲h̲on Turkic and meaning “offspring, child”, with a strong implication of “male child”, as opposed to ḳi̊z “girl” [ q.v.] (Sir Gerard Clauson, An etymological dictionary of pre-thirteenth century Turkish, Oxford 1972, 83-4), original plural og̲h̲lan , still thus in Kās̲h̲g̲h̲arī ( Dīwān lug̲h̲āt al-turk , facs. ed. Atalay, iv, Dizini , 425-6; C. Brockelmann, Mitteltürkischer Wortschatz …

, Ṭārom , the name of two places in Persia. 1. The best-known is the mediaeval Islamic district of that name lying along the middle course of the Ḳi̊zi̊l Üzen or Safīd Rūd river [ q.vv.] in the ancient region of Daylam [ q.v.] in northwestern Persia. Adjoining it on the east was the district of K̲h̲alk̲h̲āl [ q.v.]. There are, at the present time, two sma…

, ʿAyn Ubāg̲h̲ , the name of a spring or watercourse on the eastern, sc. ʿIrāḳī, fringes of the Syrian Desert which was the scene of a pre-Islamic yawm …

, a district, and in earlier Islamic times a town, in northwestern Ḵh̲urāsān. It lies on the northern edge of the long plain which extends from Bisṭām and S̲h̲āhrūd in the west almost to Nīs̲h̲āpūr in the east and whose central section is drained by the Kāl-i S̲h̲ūr river before it turns southwards into the Das̲h̲t-i Kawīr. In mediaeval Islamic times, the route from Nīs̲h̲āpūr to Gurgān ran across this plain, and the geographers place Isfarāyīn at roughly the midpoint, five stages from Nīs̲h̲āpūr and five from Gurgān. Though allegedly founded by Isfandiyār, little is known of Isfar…