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, Mug̲h̲al prince, the third son (neglecting infant deaths), of the emperor Bābur [ q.v.], full brother of Kāmrān Mīrzā [ q.v.] and halfbrother of the emperor Humāyūn [ q.v.] and Hindāl Mīrzā [ q.v.], born 922/1516 in camp, as his sobriquet indicates, died 965/1558. He received his first military command at the age of 12, during Bābur’s eastern campaigns beyond the Ganges. After Humāyūn’s succession in 937/1530, Kāmrān was assigned Kandahar, but left ʿAskarī in command there when he moved to attack Humāyūn’s possessions in Lāhawr; but a co…

, a province of India lying between 23° 48ʹ and 27° 31ʹ N. and 83° 20ʹ and 88° 32ʹ E., bounded by Uttar Prades̲h̲ on the west, Nepāl on the north, Bengal and East Pakistan on the east and Orissa on the south; area, with Čhotā Nāgpur, 67,164 sq.m., population 38,784,000. The dialects of the predominantly Hindū population, Bihjpurī, Maithilī and Māgahī, are referred to as Bihārī, and are more akin to Bengali than to Hindī; the latter is, however, the official language of administration and educati…

(a), official court ceremonies, both processional and non-processional. The whole range of ceremonial, including protocol and etiquette, is called also rusūm other terms found frequently are mawsim [ q.v.] and mawkib . Mawākib [ q.v.] refer specifically to solemn processions, but seem also to have had the more general meaning of audiences (for the ʿAbbāsids, see references in D. Sourdel, Le vizirat ʿabbāside de 749 à 946, Damascus 1960, ii, 684, n. 3; for the Fāṭimids, see e.g. al-Ḳalḳas̲h̲andī, Ṣubḥ , iii, 494: d̲j̲ulūs [ al-k̲h̲alīfa ] fi ’l-mawākib; ayyām al-mawākib ). 1. Under the …

, the 25th letter of the Arabic alphabet, transcribed / n/, with the numerical value 50, according to the oriental order [see abd̲j̲ad ]. Nūn is also a name of the 68th sūra [see Ḳurʾān , sūra ]. 1. In Arabic ¶ Definition: an occlusive, dental, voiced nasal (Cantineau, Études , 38-40; Fleisch, Traité , i, 58, 84-5). Sībawayh distinguishes two kinds nūn: (a) the one whose point of articulation is the tip of the tongue and the region a little above the incisors; this is a clear ( mad̲j̲hūr ) and hard ( s̲h̲adīd ) “letter”, but it is accompanied by a resonance ( g̲h̲unna ) of the nose ( anf ). (b) the light ( k̲h…

, town and old fort in north-central India, 24° 42′ N., 78° 9′ E., on a tableland overlooking the Betwā valley on the east. Early references by al-Bīrūnī (421/1030) and Ibn Baṭṭūṭa do not mention the fort and probably relate to a site some 15 km. north-north-west known now as Būŕhī [Urdū, ‘old’] Čandērī; here there are ruined Islamic fortifications among Hindū and Ḏj̲ayn remains, probably of the early 8th/14th century, for although the city fell in 649/1251 to G̲h̲iyāt̲h̲ al-Dīn Balban, then nāʾib of Nāṣir al-Dīn, whose aim was the seizure of booty and ca…

(a.) minaret. 1. In the Islamic lands between the Mag̲h̲rib and Afg̲h̲anistan. Unlike the other types of Islamic religious building, such as the mosque and the madrasa , the minaret is immediately and unambiguously recognisable for what it is. The reasons for this are worth investigating. It seems on the whole unrelated to its function of the ad̲h̲ān [ q.v.] calling the faithful to prayer, which can be made quite adequately from the roof of the mosque or even from a house-top. During the lifetime of the Prophet, his Abyssinian slave Bilāl [ q.v.], was responsible for making the call to …

( ca. 949-1033/ ca. 1542-1624) (the sobriquet occurs also in the Turkī form kokaltas̲h̲ or kokaldas̲h̲ , “foster-brother”), the son of the Mug̲h̲al Emperor Akbar’s wet-nurse D̲j̲īd̲j̲ī Ānaga, who rose to prominence in the Mug̲h̲al court, army and administration. His exact date of birth is not recorded, but it must have been within a month or two of Akbar’s in 949/1542; his father was S̲h̲ams al-Dīn Aḥmad G̲h̲aznawī, who had been advanced to favour after saving Humāyūn’s life in the river c…

, the main Indo-Aryan language [see hind. iii. Languages] spoken by some 40 million in Bombay and the surrounding state of Mahārās̲h̲t́rā. It differs from the “central” Hindī-Urdū language especially by its retention of the three genders of Old Indo-Aryan, by retroflex - n- and - l- consonants, by the presence of a past tense with - l- infix, and by a vocabulary more dependent on Sanskrit than on Arabic and Persian. As the chief language of Barār and the north-west Deccan, it was the regular demotic language for the populations of the old Niẓām S̲h̲āh…

With the exception of the coinage [see sikka ] and a very few ceramic fragments (a few described in J. Ph. Vogel, Catalogue of the Dehli museum of archaeology, Calcutta 1908; for the pottery fragments of the ʿĀdilābād excavations see H. Waddington, in Ancient India , i, 60-76), the only body of material for the study of the art of the Dihlī sultanate is monumental. Most of the ¶ monuments are in Dihlī itself and are described s.v. dihlī . The remainder are mostly described under the appropriate topographical headings, and are listed here in more or less chronological order. The first major und…

, a town situated in 19°9′N., 77°20′E., a former district headquarters in Ḥaydarābād State, now in Mahārās̲h̲t́ra, on the north bank of the River Godāvarī. Once a fort of the Kākatīya dynasty, it was conquered early in the 8th/14th century by ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn K̲h̲ald̲j̲ī [see dihlī sultanate ], passing through Tug̲h̲luḳ hands to the Bahmanīs; on the disintegration of the Bahmanī state it passed to the Ḳuṭb S̲h̲āhīs of Golkond́ā, forming a defence on their north-east frontier with the Niẓām S̲h̲āhīs of Aḥmadnagar, and apparently was later in the …

(a.), mosque, the noun of place from sad̲j̲ada “to prostrate oneself, hence “place where one prostrates oneself [in worship]”. The modern Western European words (Eng. mosque , Fr. mosquée , Ger. Moschee , Ital. moschea ) come ultimately from the Arabic via Spanish mezquita . I. In the central Islamic lands A. The origins of the mosque up to the Prophet’s death. The word msgdʾ is found in Aramaic as early as the Jewish Elephantine Papyri (5th century B.C.), and appears likewise in Nabataean inscriptions with the meaning “place of worship…

(old Anglicised spelling Meerut), (i) a district in the modern province of Uttar Prades̲h̲, India, immediately to the north-east of Dihlī, and entirely within the D̲j̲amnā-Ganges dōʾāb . Its principal towns are Mīrat́h city itself; Sardhānā (the chief residence of the Begam Samrū, widow of the adventurer Walter Reinhardt called “Sombre”; see samrū ); G̲h̲āzīābād; Baŕnāwā; and Hāpur, an important grain market, (ii) Mīrat́h city (29°0′N., 77°43′E.), a town of considerable antiquity. The city was the site of a pillar of As̲h̲oka, one of the two taken by Fīrūz S̲h̲āh th…

, later styled Aḥmad Niẓām S̲h̲āh Baḥrī and regarded as the first independent ruler of the Niẓām S̲h̲āhī [ q.v.] sultanate, was the son of Malik Ḥasan Niẓām al-Mulk Baḥrī, the converted Hindū who eventually became a wazīr of the Bahmanī sultanate after the murder of Maḥmūd Gāwān [ q.v.] in 886/1481. There is no reliable evidence concerning his date of birth or his early years, but he is known to have accompanied his father when the latter was appointed governor of Telingānā in 875/1471. Here his ability and promise were so conspicuous that Maḥmūd…

(a.), pis. anhār , anhur , etc., running water, hence a perennial watercourse, river, stream of any size (thus opposed to a wādī , a watercourse filled only at certain times of the year or a sayl , periodic torrent). 1. In the Middle East. Al-Masʿūdi lays down that “all running water is a nahr , the place where water flows out is a spring ( ʿayn ); and the place where a great amount of water is found is a baḥr’ ” ( Murūd̲j̲ , i, 281 = §304). In fact, the latter term [ q.v.], or its equivalent borrowed from the Hebrew, yamm , was accordingly applied not only to the seas and oce…

[English edition] كانت دار الضّرب مؤسّسة لا غنى عنها في حياة المجتمع في الشّرق الأوسط من العصور الوسطى بسبب ما يتّسم به نظام النّقد في الدّورة الاقتصاديّة من تطوّر بلغ الغاية، وبصفة خاصّة خلال القرون الأولى من السّيطرة الإسلاميّة. وكانت المهمّة الرّئيسيّة لدار الضّرب توفيرَ النّقود لتلبية احتياجات الحكومة وعموم النّاس. وكانت دور الضّرب في أزمنة الإصلاحات النّقدية تستخدَم كذلك مكاناً يمكن أن تستبدَل فيه النّقود الملغاة بالنّقود الجديدة. وقد ساعدت الكمّيات الكبيرة من المعادن الثّمينة التي تخزّن في دور الضّرب، هذه الدُّورَ على أن تؤدّي دور بيوت مال إضافيّة. وقد استخدم العرب مباشرة بعد ف…

[English edition] 1. المشرق الضريبة هي إحدى الكلمات الأكثر استخداما للدّلالة على الجباية عموماً، وتنطبق على وجه الخصوص على فئة الضرائب بأكملها التي تضاف إلى الضرائب الأساسيّة الشرعيّة. وقد تمّت دراسة هذه الأخيرة (الزكاة والعشر والجزية والخراج...) وما أثمرته خلال الفترة «الكلاسيكيّة» في مادّة سابقة بعنوان «بيت المال». سيقع تقديم وصف مفصّل لأساليب تقدير القيمة والجباية، كلّ تحت عنوانه الخاصّ به، وبصفة خاصّة ما تعلّق بالخراج. وسيتمّ في خطّ مواز إدراج الضرائب والدفعات المرتبطة بها أو المفروضة على أصناف …