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Energie

(7,792 words)

Author(s): Steinle, Friedrich | Reith, Reinhold
1. BegriffMit E. (von griech. enérgeia, »Tätigkeit«, »Wirklichkeit«) wird heute die Fähigkeit eines Körpers oder eines physikalischen Systems bezeichnet, Arbeit zu leisten. Dass E. eine Erhaltungsgröße darstellt, die zwar in verschiedenen Formen (mechanisch, elektrisch, thermisch, chemisch usw.) auftreten kann, deren Gesamtsumme in geschlossenen Systemen aber erhalten bleibt, stellt eines der fundamentalsten Prinzipien der Naturwissenschaften dar, das Physikalische Wissenschaften, Chemische Wissenschaften und Biologie gleichermaßen umfasst und ver…
Date: 2019-11-19

Quantification and measurement

(2,130 words)

Author(s): Rammer, Gerhard | Steinle, Friedrich
1. Concept Quantification means the apprehension of a defined item in numerical terms. Combined with the indication of a unit of measurement or a scale, the quantification of an item provides the conditions for its measurement. Even in the ancient world, quantification was already central to many aspects of everyday life (lengths, time, weights and measures), crafts and trades, and technology (see also Metrology). The subject under discussion here, however, is quantification and measure…
Date: 2021-03-15

Physics

(2,374 words)

Author(s): Steinle, Friedrich | Epple, Moritz
1. Concept and originsThe present-day understanding of physics as a science concerned with the properties and laws of inanimate matter and the development of mathematically-formulated theories on the basis of experiment and measurement arose only in the late 18th and early 19th centuries out of the wider sense of physics as natural philosophy (Physical sciences). The key development was the focus on a specific subject area and the increasing reliance on quantitative and mathematical procedures (Quantification and measurement) [6. chapter 5]; [5].One important impulse cam…
Date: 2020-10-06

Energy

(8,431 words)

Author(s): Steinle, Friedrich | Reith, Reinhold
1. ConceptEnergy (from the Greek enérgeia, “activity”, “actuality”) today describes the capacity of a body or a physical system to do work. Energy being a conserved quantity that, while appearing in different forms (mechanical, electrical, thermal, chemical, etc.), remains constant in total in isolated systems is one of the most fundamental principles of natural science, applying equally to and thus connecting the physical and chemical sciences and biology. Mechanics was already approaching an unders…
Date: 2019-10-14

Magnetismus

(2,806 words)

Author(s): Jonkers, Art Roeland Theo | Steinle, Friedrich
1. Begriff Über die anziehende Wirkung des Magnetsteins (lat. magnes; engl. magnet oder lodestone; franz. aimant; ital. magnete) wurde schon in der Antike berichtet. Als im 12. Jh. auch die Nord-Süd-Ausrichtung von magnetisierten Eisennadeln in Europa bekannt wurde, erhielt der M. in Form des Kompasses erstmals eminente praktische Bedeutung. In der Antike häufig in einem Atemzug genannt, wurden in der Nz. M. und Elektrizität deutlich unterschieden. Erst durch die Entdeckung des Elektromagnetismus im 19. Jh. rückte ihre tatsächliche Verbindung in den Blick, und im …
Date: 2019-11-19

Magnetism

(2,867 words)

Author(s): Jonkers, Art Roeland Theo | Steinle, Friedrich
1. Concept The attractive power of natural magnets (i.e. lodestones; Latin  magnes; German  Magnetstein; French  aimant; Italian  magnete) was already reported in antiquity. In the 12th century, the north-south alignment of magnetized iron needles became known in Europe, and magnetism acquired its first eminent practical application in the form of the compass. Often mentioned in a single breath in antiquity, magnetism and electricity came to be treated as quite distinct in the early modern period. Only with the …
Date: 2019-10-14

Truth

(4,345 words)

Author(s): Sparn, Walter | Mizrahi, Moti | Steinle, Friedrich | Großhans, Hans-Peter
1. BackgroundThe Indo-European word behind  Latin  veritas, French  vérité, German  Wahrheit (English “truth”) meant “respect,” “assent,” “fidelity”; Greek  alḗtheia (literally “unconcealment”) was also important for the history of the term. The pragmatic questions concerning whether an assertion or message is true and what criteria we should use to assess and recognize its truth have been answered implicitly or explicity in every culture. The question of what truth is arises whenever a culture reflects on its…
Date: 2022-11-07

Aufklärung

(13,283 words)

Author(s): Walther, Gerrit | Tschopp, Silvia Serena | Steinle, Friedrich | Beutel, Albrecht | Kanz, Roland | Et al.
1. Begriff und DefinitionA. (im Deutschen 1691 erstmals belegt) und ihre europ. Parallelbegriffe enlightenment, lumières, illuminismo, ilustración bezeichnen die wirkungsmächtigste europ. Bildungsbewegung des 18. Jh.s und zugleich deren spezifisches Ziel: alle Autoritäten, Traditionen und Hierarchien am Maß einer neu definierten Vernunft kritisch zu prüfen und abzuschaffen, falls sie deren Gesetzen widersprechen sollten, die gesamte Lebenswelt nach diesen Gesetzen neu zu ordnen und möglichst viele Menschen fähig zu machen, kraft dieser Vernunft ein besseres, glüc…
Date: 2021-06-18

Enlightenment

(14,627 words)

Author(s): Walther, Gerrit | Steinle, Friedrich | Beutel, Albrecht | Tschopp, Silvia Serena | Kanz, Roland | Et al.
1. Concept and definition Enlightenment in English is first attested from 1865 as a translation of the German  Aufklärung, which was first recorded in 1691. With their European cognates  lumières (French), illuminismo (Italian), and  ilustración (Spanish), they denote the most influential European educational and cultural movement of the 18th century, as well as its overriding goals: to subject all authorities, traditions, and hierarchies to the critical measure of a newly defined reason, and to abolish them if they ran counter…
Date: 2019-10-14
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