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[English version] (hebr. benē Ṣādōq - “Söhne Zadoks”) bezeichnet die Nachkommen Zadoks (Enkel Aarons), eines der Hohenpriester im Jerusalemer Tempel zu Zeiten Davids [1] (2. Sam 15,24-37), die in vorexilischer Zeit (bis 586 v. Chr.) den Alleinanspruch auf das Hohepriesteramt besaßen (1 Kg 2,26 f.) und sich in nachexilischer Zeit (ab 538 v. Chr.) erneut für das Priester- und Hohepriesteramt durchsetzen konnten (Ez 44,6-16; Priester III.). Die Priester, denen allein der Opferdienst vorbehalten war, wa…

[English version] (Ζοροβαβελ, LXX). Die pseudepigraphische hebr. Apokalypse des S. entstand verm. Anf. des 7. Jh. n. Chr. in Palaestina und spiegelt die messianischen Erwartungen der jüd. Bevölkerung wider, die - durch die antijüd. byz. Gesetzgebung bedroht - auf die persische Eroberung Palaestinas hoffte (pers.-byz. Kriege 604-630 n. Chr.; Datier. der Apokalypse ins 4. Jh. oder 5. Jh. [1]). Eingebettet in eine Rahmenhandlung, die Offenbarung der messianischen Erlösung durch Metatron (einige Mss.:…

[English version] (vom hebr. EN ṭōviyyȧh, Neh 2,10; Τωβιας/ Tōbias, LXX, vgl. ὑιοὶ Τωβια/ hyioí Tōbia, 2 Esr 17,62). Die Familie der T. spielte z.Z. des Zweiten Tempels (III.) eine führende ökonomische und polit. Rolle in Iudaea (Juda und Israel). Arch. nachgewiesen ist die wohl auf den Ruinen des Stammsitzes der T. im h. Irāq al-Amīr (Transjordanien) errichtete Festung Tyros des Hyrkanos [1]. Ihr erster histor. faßbarer Vertreter ist der aus dem bibl. Buch Nehemia bekannte persische Verwaltungsbeamte ammonit…

[English version] (Σαμβήθη oder Σάββη/ Sábbē). Name der jüdischen Sibylle, die mit der äg., pers. und babylon. Sibylle identifiziert werden kann [2. 317 ff.]; er leitet sich wohl von hebr. Šabbat ab [7. 622 ff.]. Eine Sabbe ist erstmals in der vier Sibyllen umfassenden Liste des Pausanias [8] (um 160 n. Chr.) belegt (Paus. 10,12,1-9), die auf Alexandros [23] Polyhistor zurückgeht. Sie ist mit der als “Tochter Noahs” bezeichneten Prophetin in or. Sib. 3,823 ff. sowie or. Sib. prooemium 33 und or. Sib. 1,289 zu identifizieren. Die 12 B. der Oracula Sibyllina zählen zur pseudepigra…

[English version] I. Entstehung Die auf den Aristeas-Brief (Aristeas [2]; [12. 20-37; 15. 677-687; 13]) zurückgehende Entstehungslegende der S. besagt, daß König Ptolemaios [3] II. Philadelphos den Pentateuch von 70 (bzw. 72; 70 = ἑβδομήκοντα/ hebdomḗkonta, lat. septuaginta interpretes, daher der Name S./LXX) Gelehrten an 70 (bzw. 72) Tagen für seine Bibl. ins Griech. übersetzen ließ. Der Name wurde dann auf die griech. Übers. der gesamten hebräischen Bibel einschließlich der Apokryphen (Apokryphe Literatur) übertragen. Diese Über…

[English version] (ζηλωταί/ zēlōtaí, “Eiferer”, von griech. ζηλοῦν/ zēlún, “eifern”). Polit.-rel. Gruppe von Juden, die sich im 1. Jh. n. Chr. und v. a. im ersten Jüd.-röm. Krieg (Jüdische Kriege, s. Nachträge) gegen die röm. Herrschaft in Palaestina erhoben. Der Begriff “Z.” findet sich bei Iosephos [4] Flavius (bell. Iud. 4,160 f.; 7,268-270), dessen Bellum Iudaicum (B. 4-7) und Antiquitates die wichtigsten histor. Quellen für die Bewegung und Ideologie der Z. darstellen. Der Begriff ist eine Übers. der hebr. Bezeichnung qannāīm ( qannā, “eifernd”, sc.: für Gott, u. a…

[English Version] (hebr. sheva mizwot bene Noach) sind nach jüd. Auffassung die für alle Menschen (Nichtjuden und Juden) verbindlichen Gebote (Mizwot) – im Gegensatz zu den exklusiv den Juden offenbarten Ge- und Verboten der Tora. Diese Vorstellung geht auf die rabb. Auslegung der Offenbarungen an Adam und Noah, die Urväter aller Menschen, zurück (Gen 2,16; 9,1–7). Die Einhaltung der n.G. ermöglicht prinzipiell auch den Nichtjuden ein gottesfürchtiges Leben und schließt sie in den göttlichen Heils…

[English Version] ist der Autor eines Werkes über die bibl. Gesch. von Adam bis hin zu Saul und David (möglicherweise frgm.), das traditionell Philo von Alexandrien zugeschrieben wurde. Die in zahlreichen Hsn. überlieferte, in vorhieronymischen Lat. vf. Übers. (4.Jh.) aus dem Griech. geht auf einen urspr. auf Hebr. vf. Text zurück, wie bes. durch der HB und der Targumlit. nahestehende Begriffe etc. deutlich wird. Auch die erzählerischen Ausschmückungen und Zusätze zur bibl. Vorlage verweisen auf …

[English Version] . Die pseudepigraphische hebr. Apokalypse (Apokalyptik: III.,2.) des S. (vermutlich Anfang 7.Jh. n.Chr., Palästina) spiegelt die messianischen Erwartungen (Messias/Messianismus: III.,1.) der jüd.-paläst. Bevölkerung wider, die – durch antijüd. Gesetze der byz. Herrscher bedroht – auf die pers. Eroberung hoffte (pers.-byz. Kriege 604–630 n.Chr.). Eingebettet in eine Rahmenhandlung, die Offenbarung der messianischen Erlösung durch Metatron/Michael an S. (letzter Herrscher aus david…

[English Version] (Epiker), jüd. Autor eines griech. Epos über die Stadt Jerusalem, das in der hell. Tradition des Städtelobs steht. 24 Hexameter, die in sechs Frgm. aufgeteilt sind, werden von Eusebius von Caesarea (praep. 9,20; 24; 37) überliefert und dort als Zitate aus Alexander Polyhistors »Über die Juden« angeführt, der sie selbst als dem Epos »Über Jerusalem« entnommen zitiert. Die in den Frgm. genannten Themen sind Abraham, die Bindung Isaaks, der Wohnsitz Gottes, Joseph und die Traumdeutu…

[English Version] . Die Bez. Z. (ζηλωται´/zēlōtaí, von griech. ζηλο´ω/zēlóō, »eifern«) für die sich im 1.Jh. n.Chr. und v.a. im Ersten Jüdischen Krieg gegen die röm. Herrschaft über Palästina erhebenden Juden findet sich bei Flavius Josephus (Bell. II 651; IV 160f.; VII 268–270), dessen Bellum Judaicum (II–VII) und Antiquitates die wichtigsten hist. Quellen für die Bewegung der Z. und ihre Ideologie darstellen. Die hebr. Bez. qanna'im (von qanna', »eifernd«) findet sich u.a. in bSan 82a. Ihr Name ist auf…

[English Version] wird als Autor eines zw. 100 v. und 100 n.Chr. möglicherweise in Alexandrien vf. jüd.-hell. Lehrgedichts (230 Verse) bez. Dieses verbindet Entlehnungen aus der LXX – wobei spezifisch jüd. Glaubensinhalte nicht hervortreten, vom Monotheismus aber nicht abgewichen wird – mit hell. »Popularethik« (Walter 191). Christl. Einflüsse oder die Verwendung des NT sind nicht nachzuweisen. Einzuordnen ist es in den Bereich der für die hell. Epoche charakteristischen weisheitlich-lit. Lebensl…

[English Version] (ApkZeph). Eine Prophetie oder Apokalpyse des Z. (Sophonias) wird in antiken und ma. Verzeichnissen apokr. Schriften zum AT erwähnt. Überliefert ist ein griech. Zitat bei Clemens von Alexandrien (Stromata V 11, 77) sowie ein kopt. Text in zwei frgm. Hsn. (5.Jh. n.Chr.), einer sahidischen und einer achmimischen. Aufgrund des jetzt bekannten Handschriftenbestandes kann nicht sicher entschieden werden, ob es sich um Teile eines oder mehrerer unter demselben Namen verfaßter Werke han…

[English Version] (Epiker), allein durch Zitate seines griech. Städteepos über die samaritanische Stadt Sichem (hell. Gründungsmythos, Geschehnisse um Jakob, Dina, Simeon und Levi, Beschneidung, Ermordung der Bevölkerung Sichems [Gen 34]) in dem ebenfalls verloren gegangenen Werk »Über die Juden« des Alexander Polyhistor bekannt. Lediglich sechs Frgm. (47 Hexameter) des Th. sind durch Eusebius von Caesarea (praep.) überliefert. Entstanden ist das Werk in Palästina oder Alexandrien vor dem 1.Jh. v.…

[German Version] A prophecy or apocalypse of Zephaniah (Sophonias) is mentioned in ancient and medieval lists of the Old Testament Apocrypha. A Greek quotation is preserved in Clement of Alexandria’s Stromata (V 11.77); a Coptic text is also preserved in two fragmentary 5th-century manuscripts, one Sahidic, the other Akhmimic. The extant manuscript evidence is insufficient to determine with certainty whether we are dealing with portions of a single work or several works composed under the same name (Diebner, 1158). The Akhmi…

[German Version] was the author of a work (possibly fragmentary) on biblical history from Adam to Saul and ¶ David, which was traditionally attributed to Philo of Alexandria. The version preserved in numerous manuscripts was translated from Greek in the 4th century into pre-Jerome Latin, and goes back to an original Hebrew text, as is shown by the use of notions and terms close to the Hebrew Bible and Targum literature. The narrative embellishments and additions to the biblical text also indicate a close relations…

[German Version] epic poet, known only through quotations of his Greek epic on the Samaritan city of Shechem (Hellenistic foundation myth, events involving Jacob, Dinah, Simeon, and Levi, circumcision, murder of the Shechemites [Gen 34]) in Alexander Polyhistor’s On the Jews, another lost work. Only six fragments (47 hexameters) of Theodotus’s work are preserved in Eusebius of Caesarea’s Praeparatio evangelica. The epic was produced in Palestine or Alexandria before the 1st century bce; its clear interest in the topic of forced conversion to Judaism suggests that it…

[German Version] The apocryphal apocalypse “Ascension of Isaiah” consists of two distinct parts: the “Martyrdom of Isaiah” (1–5) and the “Vision of Isaiah” (6–11). The Martyrdom of Isaiah was very likely written in Hebrew in Palestine. The original language of the Vision of Isaiah is Greek; however, where it first originated and the location of the final editing process (3rd–4th cent. ce) are unknown. A complete version of the Vision of Isaiah is only available in an Egyptian translation (4th–6th cent. ce); additionally, some Greek and Latin fragm…

[German Version] In Jewish theology, the seven Noachid (Noahide) laws (Heb. sheva mizwot bene Noach) are the commandments (Mitzvot) binding on all human­king, including Gentiles – in contrast to the commandments and prohibitions of the Torah, revealed exclusively to the Jews. This idea goes back to the rabbinic interpretation of the revelations to Adam and Noah, the forefathers of all humankind (Gen 2:16; 9:1–7). In principle observing the Noahide laws enables Gentiles to live lives pleasing to God and incorp…

[German Version] 1. Rabban Gamaliel (Gamaliel I) was active in Jerusalem c. 25–50 ce as an outstanding Torah scholar ( Midr. Sota 9:15) and member of the Sanhedrin ( bet-din; Acts 5:34ff.). The traditional view that he was the son or grandson of Hillel is presumably legendary ( b. Šabb. 15a), but does, indeed, suggest continuity in doctrine. The historicity of the teacher-student relationship attributed to him and Paul in Acts22:3 and his intervention ¶ before the Sanhedrin on behalf of releasing the apostles (Acts 5:34–39) is also unclear. 2. Gamaliel II , the son of Simeon and grands…

[German Version] (Heb. כְּתוּבָּה, “that which is written”), marriage contract in which the financial livelihood of the wife is secured in the event of divorce or widowhood (Marriage: IX). The Talmud tractate Ketubbot (“marriage contracts”) deals with the rights and duties of spouses resulting from the marriage contract, but also with other topics such as dowry, divorce, etc. Since the minimum amounts of money to which a wife is entitled in these cases are also specified by law ( m. Ketub. 4:7–12; b. Ketub. 16b), the drawing up of a ketubbah could be waived in talmudic times. …

[German Version] was the Jewish author of a Greek epic on the city of Jerusalem, in the Hellenistic tradition of praise of cities. Eusebius of Caesarea ( Praep. 9.20, 24, 37) transmits 24 hexameters, divided into six fragments, and attributes them to Alexander Polyhistor’s On the Jews, who himself cites them as taken from the epic On Jerusalem. Subjects treated in the fragments are Abraham, the binding of Isaac, the abode of God, Joseph and the dream interpretation, and Jerusalem’s water supply. The epic comprised at least 14 chapters, and was probably written between 200 and 100 bce in Hel…

[German Version] The term refers to the period roughly between (a) the end of the Babylonian Exile (539 bce), the rebuilding of the Temple in Jerusalem (520), and the completion of the Hebrew Bible, and (b) the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple (70 ce) and the beginnings of rabbinic Judaism. The term “early Judaism” thus covers a period that historians, depending on where the focus of their interest lies, also refer to as the Hellenistic-Roman period (300 bce–200 ce), lately also as “Middle Judaism” (Boccaccini) or the Second Temple Period (520 bce–70 ce). It …

[German Version] The pseudepigraphic Hebrew Apocalypse of Zerubbabel (Apocalypticism: III, 2), probably written in Palestine in the early 7th century ce, reflects the messianic hopes (Messiah: III, 1) of the Palestinian Jews, who – threatened by the anti-Jewish laws of the Byzantine rulers – set their hopes on a Persian conquest during the Persian-Byzantine wars between 604 and 630 ce. Embedded in a framework that recounts the revelation of messianic redemption by Metatron/Michael to Zerubbabel, the last ruler of the Davidic line and builder of the seco…

[German Version] is the name given to the author of a Hellenistic Jewish didactic poem of 230 aphorisms written between 100 bce and 100 ce, possibly in Alexandria. It combines material borrowed from the Septuagint – though specifically Jewish beliefs are not much evidence, there is no departure from monotheism – with Hellenistic “popular ethics” (Walter, 191). There is no evidence of Christian influence or use of the New Testament. The work belongs to the wisdom genre of practical guidance on living characteristic of t…

[German Version] The book of Judith, named for its protagonist, Judith (“Jewess”), forms part of the Old Testament Apocrypha (II). The original, probably composed in Hebrew (for Gk as the original language, see Engel), from which the extant Greek translation in its various recensions stems, has not been preserved. The old Latin, Syriac, Coptic and Armenian translations were prepared from original Greek texts. Several Hebrew versions of the text exist which are based on a free rendition of the Sept…

[German Version] Other than a few quotations from the church fathers (e.g. Or. Princ. III 2.1), the only known version of the “Ascension of Mose” ( As.Mos. or T.Mos.) is an incomplete Latin manuscript from the 6th century (palimpsest; 1st ed. 1861 by Ceriani). This Latin translation (5th cent.) of a Greek translation probably goes back to a Hebrew or Aramaic original (Tromp favors a Greek original) written in Judea before the destruction of the temple (original version probably 2nd–1st cent. bce; final version early 1st cent. ce, because Herod the Great is identifiable; …

[German Version] The designation “Zealots” (ζηλωταί/ zēlōtaí, from Gk ζηλόω/ zēlóō, “to be zealous, to strive after”) for those Jews who rebelled against Roman rule in Palestine during the 1st century ce and especially during the First Jewish Revolt is encountered in the works of Flavius Josephus ( Bell. II 651; IV 160f.; VII 268–270), whose Bellum Judaicum (II–VII) and Antiquitates constitute the most important sources for the Zealot movement and its ideology. The Hebrew designation qannaʾim (“zealous ones”) is attested, among other places, in b. Sanh. 82a. Their name goes back …

[German version] (Και(α)φᾶς, Cai(a)phâs). Joseph, with the epithet Caiphas (from Aramaic qayyāfā), was high priest of the Temple of Jerusalem (AD 18-36) and therefore the leader of the Sanhedrin ( Synhedrion), the highest Jewish authority for civil and political issues during Hellenistic and Roman times. As son-in-law of the high priest Ananus (or Annas, Hannas; AD 6-15), he belonged to one of the important families of priests that regularly occupied this office (Jo 18,13; also mPar 3,5 and tYev 1,10) [4. 234]. He was appointed by the Roman procurator Valerius Gratus (AD 15-26), …

[German version] I. Origin According to the legend of the origin of the Septuagint, which is based on the so-called Letter of Aristeas [2] ([12. 20-37; 15. 677-687; 13]), king Ptolemy [3] II Philadelphus had the Pentateuch translated into Greek for his library by 70 (or 72; 70 = ἑβδομήκοντα/ hebdomḗkonta, Latin septuaginta interpretes, hence the name S./LXX) scholars over a period of 70 (or 72) days. The name then came to refer to the Greek translation of the entire Hebrew Bible including the Apocrypha (Apocryphal literature). This story is prob…

[German version] (Σαμβήθη/ Sambḗthē or Σάββη/ Sábbē). Name, probably derived from Hebrew šabbat (Sabbath) [7. 622 ff.], of the Jewish Sibyl, who can be identified with the Egyptian, Persian and Babylonian Sibyls [2. 317 ff.]. A Sabbe is first recorded in Pausanias' [8] list of four Sibyls ( c. AD 160) (Paus. 10,12,1-9), drawing on Alexander [23] Polyhistor. She can be identified with a prophetess known as a 'Noah's daughter' in Or. Sib. 3,823 ff., Or. Sib. prooemium 33 and Or. Sib.  1,289. The 12 books of the Oracula Sibyllina, pseudepigraphic apocalyptic literature (Apocalypse…

(Φασάηλος; Phasáēlos). [German version] [1] Eldest son of Antipater [4] and Cyprus Eldest son of Antipater [4] and Cyprus, born in c. 77 BC probably in Marissa (Idumaea; Jos. Bl.  1,8,9; Jos. Ant. lud. 14,7,3). In 47 BC, P. was appointed governor  (στρατηγός/stratēgós) of Jerusalem and the surrounding area by Antipater (ἐπίτροπος/ epítropos of Judaea under the high priest and ethnarchos Hyrcanus [3] II), while his brother Herod [1] took on the same office in Galilee (Jos. Ant. lud. 14,9,2; Jos. Bl 1,10,4). Josephus credits P…

[German version] This historical depiction of world events (from Adam to the destruction of the Jewish temple in Jerusalem by Titus in AD 70) was written in Hebrew, presumably in the 10th cent. in southern Italy. It is based on the works of  Iosephus [4] Flavius ( Antiquitates Judaicae, Bellum Judaicum, Contra Apionem). Aside from the Latin version of the Bellum (so-called Latin Hegesippus, 4th cent. AD) diverse medieval chronicles can be established as the main models. At the centre are disputes between Rome and Israel. Medieval translations into Arabi…

[German version] The last of seven procurators who administered most of Palestine as a Roman province after the death of Agrippa I in AD 44 under the supreme command of the Syrian governor. Born in Clazomenae, he obviously obtained his office through the links between his wife Cleopatra and the empress Poppaea Sabina (Jos. Ant. Iud. 20,252f.). His rule lasted only two years (AD 64-66) and ended with the outbreak of the 1st Jewish uprising against Rome (Tac. Hist. 5,10). Josephus Flavius whose Bellum Iudaicum is the most important source for Gessius Florus (GF) (cf. Jos. BI 2,1…

[German version] (from the Hebrew šelōmṣiyōn, Aramaic short form Šelamṣah, 'Peace of Zion'; Greek Σαλαμψιώ/ Salampsiṓ). Eldest daughter of Herod (Herodes [1]) the Great and his Hasmonaic wife Mariamme [1]; b. c. 33 BC. After Herod's brother Pheroras had refused marriage with her, in 20 BC, she wed her cousin Phasael II, son of Phasael [1] I, by whom she had five children (Herod IV, Alexander III, Antipater IV, Alexandra and Cyprus III) (Ios. Ant. Iud. 16,7,6; 17,1,3; 18,5,4). Wandrey, Irina (Berlin) Bibliography N. Kokkinos, The Herodian Dynasty. Origins, Role in Society and Ec…

[German version] (Φασαηλίς/ Phasaēlís, Φασηλός/ Phasēlós, modern Ḫirbat Faṣāil). City founded by Herodes [1] I in memory of his elder brother Phasael [1] to the north of Jericho in the fertile Jordan rift valley, probably after 30 BC (Ios. Ant. Iud. 16,5,2; Ios. BI 1,21,9). Inherited after Herod's death by his sister Salome (Ios. Ant. Iud. 17,8,1; Ios. BI 2,6,3), after her death P. became the property of Livia [2], wife of the emperor Augustus (Ios. Ant. Iud. 18,2,2; Ios. BI 2,9,1). P. was known for it…

[German version] (Μαχαιροῦς/ Machairoûs, Hebrew Mekawar, Mekabar). Fortress situated east of the Dead Sea in southern Peraea, on the border with the Nabataean kingdom ( Nabataei) which Alexander [16] Iannaeus (103-76 BC) had built (modern Ruǧm al-Mišnaqa). According to Plin. HN 5,16,72, M. was, apart from Jerusalem, the strongest fortress in Judea. M. was completely destroyed during the Roman campaign in 63 BC by Pompeius (Str. 16,763) and later by the proconsul of Syria Gabinius [I 2] (57-55 BC) (Jos…

[German version] One of the highest princes of angels in Jewish mystical literature. There are several etymological explanations for M.'s name. Odeberg [2. 137 ff.] had already pleaded for the Greek words metá and thrónos, ‘(he who sits)next to the throne (of God)’ (similarly [1]; negatively [5. 75]). In addition, a tradition of 70 secret names is linked with M. [3], including ‘Youth’, ‘Servant’, ‘Yahoel’ and ‘little Yahweh’. He is given a central role in late antique Hekhalot literature [5]. In the so-called Third Book of Enoch…

[German version] (Hebrew benē Ṣādōq, 'sons of Zadok') is a term for the descendants of Zadok (a grandson of Aaron), one of the high priests in the Temple in Jerusalem at the time of  David [1] (2 Sam 15:24-37). In the pre-Exilic period (up to 586 BC), they had sole claim to the office of high priest (1 Kg 2:26 f.), and in the post-Exilic period (from 538 BC), they once again were able to prevail in the offices of priest and high priest (Ez 44:6-16; Priests III). In the post-Exilic period, the perform…

[German version] (Ζοροβαβελ/ Zorobabel, LXX). The pseudepigraphic Hebrew Apocalypse of Z. (Apocalypses) was presumably written in Palestine (Palaestina) at the beginning of the 7th cent. AD and reflects Messianic expectations of the Jewish population, which - threatened by anti-Jewish Byzantine law - was hoping for a Persian conquest of Palestine (Persian-Byzantine Wars 604-630 AD; dating of the Apocalypse to the 4th or 5th cent.[1]). Embedded in a frame story, the revelation by Metatron (some MSS:…

(Hebrew šelomṣiyōn, 'Peace of Zion', Aramaic short form šelamṣāh; Σαλώμη/ Salṓmē). [German version] [1] Sister of Herod [1] the Great, 2nd half, 1st cent. BC Sister of Herod (Herodes [1]) the Great ( c. 57 BC - AD 10). Until his death, she played an important role in factional intrigues at the Herodian court: she plotted against Herod's Hasmonaic wife Mariamme [1] I and their sons Alexander and Aristoboulus [4], likewise against her own husbands Iosephus [1] and Costobarus, who were executed (Jos. BI 1,441 ff.; Jos. Ant. Iud. 1…

[German version] Son (or grandson) of Judas Galileus, who (like his father Hezekiah) fought against Rome and Herod (Ios. Ant. Iud. 18,1,6; 14,9,2) [2]. Judas is described by Iosephus [4] Flavius as the founder of the so-called fourth (nameless, later given the derogatory name of Sicarii, ‘Dagger Men’ = ‘Murderers’ [1. 50]) philosophical school, which differed from the Pharisaei mainly in its love of freedom and its struggle for the absolute rule of God (Ios. Ant. Iud. 18,1,1; 18,1,6) [3. 599; 1. 8…

(Greek Ὀν(ε)ίας/ On(e)ías; Hebrew neḥonyah, ḥunyah, ḥoni); personal name, which was widespread in ancient Judaism ([9. vol. 2, 1394, 1455]; Jos. Ant. Iud. 14,22; 25; 222; Jos. Ap. 2,49; Mishnah Taan 3,8). In the pre-Maccabaean period, bearers of this name included four Zadokid High Priests at the Temple of Jerusalem. The most important historical sources for the lineage of the Oniads are the Antiquitates Iudaicae of Iosephus [4] Flavius and 2 Macc. [German version] [1] O. I. High Priest, father of Simon the Just, 4th/3rd cents. BC (Late 4th cent. BC). Son of the High Priest Jaddu…

[German version] (ζηλωταί/ zēlōtaí, from Greek ζηλοῦν/ zēloûn, 'strive after'). Political and religious group of Jews who rose against Roman rule in Palestine in the 1st cent. AD, primarily in the first Jewish-Roman War (Jewish Wars). The term 'Zealots' can be found in Iosephus [4] Flavius (BI 4,160f.; 7,268-270), whose Bellum Iudaicum (books 4-7) and Antiquitates form the most important historical sources for the Zealots' movement and ideology. The term is a translation of the Hebrew qannāīm ( qannā, 'eager', sc. for God, e.g. in the Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Sanhed…

[German version] The special tax of two drachmas per person imposed on the Jewish population after the conquest of Jerusalem (AD 70) by Vespasianus (Jos. BI 7,218). The fiscus iudaicus ( FI) replaced the half-shekel tax levied for the Jewish Temple and was regarded as a punitive measure as it was diverted to the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus in Rome. Under Domitianus the FI was collected rigourously as a measure for preventing conversions (Suet. Dom. 12,2) [3; 4; 7], but already under Nerva the collection was eased off [1; 4]. The levying of the FI is attested until the mid 3rd cent. AD …

[German version] (Λιβιάς; Libiás, Latin Livias, also Iulias). Town in the eastern Jordan valley, the Aramaic name of which is bet ramta, and which, according to Jewish tradition, is to be identified with the biblical bet haran (or haram; Nm 32:36; Jos 13:27) (jTalmud Shevi 9,2 [38d]). The Christian traditions of Hier. and Eus. (Euseb. On. 48,13ff.; Βηθραμφθά, Bēthramphthá) follow this. Even if this identification is not certain, bet ramta is undoubtedly identical with the town mentioned by Jos. (BI 17,10,6) Bētharámata (Βηθαράματα), where Herodes [1] the Great owned a palac…

(Μανάημος; Manáēmos). Greek form of the Hebrew proper name Menaḥem (‘the comforter), attested in the Old Testament (2 Kgs 15:14ff.) and in other Semitic languages. [German version] [1] Essenian, 1st cent. BC Essenian ( Essenes) (1st cent. BC), who foretold Herod ( Herodes [1]) the Great that he would become king and that he would turn his back on godliness and and justice, and who predicted, in a second prophecy, the duration of his reign (Jos. Ant. Iud. 15,10,5). Like M. [3], the son of Judas Galilaeus, he is identified with the scribe M. [1; 2]. Wandrey, Irina (Berlin) [German version] [2] In…

[German version] (Ματθίας/Matthías); variant of the proper name Mattathias, Hebr. Mattityah, ‘gift of God’). Father of the historian Iosephus [4] Flavius, of whom little is known apart from his son's statements in his vita (Jos. Vit. 1). He lived from AD 6 until after AD 70, since Iosephus reports on the fate of his parents during the Jewish War (Vit. 41; Jos. BI 5,13,1). M. was a member of the priestly clan of Yehoyarib (1 Chr 24,7) and his great-grandmother was presumably a daughter of Alexander [16] Iannaeus and therefore a Hasmonean (Vit. 1,4; critical [3], affirmative [2]). Wandrey, Iri…

[German version] (from the Hebrew personal name ṭōviyyȧh, Neh 2,10; Τωβιας/ Tōbias, LXX, cf. ὑιοὶ Τωβια/ hyioì Tōbia 'sons of Tobias', 2 Esr 17:62). The family of the T. played a leading economic and political role at the time of the second Temple (III) in Iudaea (Judah and Israel). Archeologically attested is Hyrcanus's fortress of Tyrus which was probably built on the ruins of the ancestral seat of the T. in present-day Irāq al-Amīr (Transjordan) [1]. The first historically traceable representative is known f…

[German version] (Φερώρας; Pherṓras). Youngest son of Antipater [4], born c. 68 BC probably in Marissa (Idumaea), died c. 5 BC. His first marriage was to a Hasmonaean princess (the sister of Mariamme [1] I, the first wife of his elder brother Herodes [1] I), his second was to a "slave girl" (Jos. BI 1,24,5; Jos. Ant. Iud. 16,7,3). P. was a close comrade-in-arms of his brother Herodes: on his commission he restored the fortress of Alexandreum to the north of Jericho (Jos. Ant. Iud. 15,11,5; Jos. BI 1,16,3), acted …