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1. Historischer Überblick 1.1. Begriff und neuzeitliche DeutungR. (von lat. reformatio, ›Wiederherstellung‹, ›Umgestaltung‹) ist seit der Mitte des 19. Jh.s spezieller Terminus für die eine Seite jener Vorgänge, durch die im 16. Jh. die westl. Christenheit in mehrere einander antagonistische Konfessionskirchen auseinandertrat; sein Antonym, welches die andere Seite bezeichnet, ist Gegen-R.Zuvor hatte der Begriff die allgemeine Bedeutung von Reform. So begegnet reformatio bzw. die zugrundeliegende verbale Form reformare in den kirchl. und polit. Reformbewegungen…

1. Historical survey 1.1. Terminology and early modern interpretationSince the mid-19th century,  Reformation (from Latin  reformatio, “restoration,” “transformation”) has been a specialized term for one side of the 16th-century events that tore Western Christendom apart into mutually antagonistic confessional churches; its antonym, denoting the other side, is  Counter-Reformation.Previously the term had carried the general meaning of “reform.” In the ecclesiastical and political reform movements of the late Middle Ages, we find both  …

[German Version] is now the administrative center of the Tarn et Garonne département; it became Protestant as early as 1561 on the conversion of Bishop Jean de Lettes. In 1570 the Edict o…

[German Version] (Aug 28, 1639, Usseaux, Dauphiné – Apr 8, 1703, Utrecht), was appointed pastor in Venterol (Drôme) and Embrun in 1661 but was forced to flee to Holland from French Switzerland on account of his Reformed faith. There he was appointed pastor of the ¶ Walloon congregation in Delft and in 1670 pastor in Utrecht. He participated in the investigation into J. de Labadie; having a certain sympathy with Socinianism (Socinians), he emphasized freedom of conscience in opposition to P. Jurieu, Influenced by the mystical theology of F. Fénelon, he …

[German Version] 1. Matthias (Oct 27, 1618, Süchteln on the Lower Rhine – Oct 9, 1686, Herborn). After attending secondary school in Wesel from 1632, Nethenus studied philosophy and theology in Harderwijk, Deventer, and Utrecht. In 1646 he became pastor and headmaster in Kleve. Through the good offices of G. Voetius he was called in 1654 to be professor of theology in Utrecht, but in 1662 he was removed from office because of a polemical writing against S. Maresius in th…

[German Version] (Oct 7, 1625, Brieg – May 19, 1687, Leiden), Reformed theologian. Initially he studied law and later theology in Bremen, Groningen, and Leiden, where he was introduced to the philosophy of R. Descartes. In 1650 he was appointed professor of philosophy at Herborn and in 1652 pastor in Duisburg; in 1655 he became professor of theology at Nijmwegen and in 1671 at Leiden, where he adopted the covenant theology of J. Cocceius. His attempt to reco…

[German Version] (probably 1596, Bordeaux – Jan 30, 1676, near Paris). Having studied jurisprudence and absorbed the ideas of Calvinism and late French Humanism, La Peyrère was suspected of atheism within the Reformed Church as early as 1626. In 1656, he attempted to evade the acute threat from the Spanish-Flemish Inquisition by converting to Catholicism and joining the order of the Oratorians. His messianic theory divides the history of salvation into three periods: the election of the Jews as th…

[German Version] I. Concept – II. Legal Aspects – III. Economics – IV. Non-Christian Antiquity – V. Bible – VI. Christianity – VII. Judaism – VIII. Islam I. Concept Interest is payment in exchange for a right of use or exploitation, typically on a temporary basis and always agreed for a fixed period of time. Money later gained increasing importance as an object of lending and now occupies a dominant position, although other items or rights remain possible as objects of lending, as for example rent. In economics (see III below), this mutual commitment between the conferral…

[German Version] (Jul 19, 1569, Cologne – Sep 29, 1622, Tönning), Arminian theologian. Vorst studied with J. Piscator in Herborn in 1593 and in 1593 and 1594 in Heidelberg, Basel, and Geneva. In 1596 he was appointed professor of theology at the Gymnasium Illustre in Steinfurt. He accepted a call to Leiden in 1611. Suspected early on of Socinianism (Socinians), in 1619 he was condemned by the Synod of Dort and expelled from the Netherlands. Along with other Remonstrants (Remonstration), he finally…

[German Version] (c. 1530, Beaugency-sur-Loire – 1595, Castres). After law school in Orléans and Bourges, Daneau turned to Protestantism under the influence of Calvin in 1560. In 1562, he became pastor in Gien-sur-Loire, and in 1572 pastor and professor of theology in Geneva. He moved to Leiden in 1581, and on to Ghent in 1582; from 1583 he worked in Orthez an…

[German Version] (1626, Romorantin, Département Loir-et-Cher – Sep 27, 1685, Carré, near Orléans). After studying theology at Saumur, Pajon was appointed pastor in Marchenoir in 1650; in 1666 he became professor of theology at Saumur. A pupil of M. Amyraut and J. Cameron, he supported their views concerning the doctrine of predestination and grace; he sought to escape condemnation by taking a pastorate in Orléans in 1668. Pajon made use of early Enlightenment tools to elucidate Reformed do…

[German Version] (Jan 1, 1902, Vienna – Apr 9/17, 1945, Sachsenhausen). The jurist Hans v. Dohnanyi's almost uninterrupted career at the Reich Ministry of Justice began in 1929. From 1934 to 1938, he served as head of its Bureau of …

[German Version] (c. 1525, Zierikzee/Zeeland [?] – c. 1562, Emden) studied law in Leuven, was ordained priest in 1552, and assumed leadership of the Reformed congregation in Antwerp in dangerous circumstances in 1556. Having sojourned in Aachen and Emden, Haemstede pastored the expatriate Dut…

[German Version] (Claude de Saumaise; Apr 15, 1588, Semur-en-Auxois, Burgundy – Sep 3, 1653, Spa), philologist and jurisprudent. Salmasius studied with I. Casaubonus in Paris and Dionysius Gothofredus (154…

[German Version] (Jun 9, 1590, Gut Bardt, near Elberfeld – Jan 1, 1658, Deventer), Reformed theologian. After studying in Herborn, Siegen, and Leiden, in 1609 he was appointed pastor in Randerath (Jülich) and in 1617 in Deventer. As a participant in the Synod of Dort in 1618/1619, Sibel advocated moderate orthodoxy (II, 2.b). He also assisted in the Dutch translation of the New Testament.…

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[German Version] (Sep 15, 1678, Vevey, Vaud – Sep 28, 1750, Lausanne). After studies in Bern, Berlin, and Leiden, Ruchat was appointed pastor in Aubonne in 1709, then in Rolle in 1716. In 1721 he was appointed professor of literature and in 1733 professor of theology in Lausanne. In 1727/1728 he published a Histoire de la réformation de la Suisse (6 vols., covering 1516–1536). His life work, an Histoire générale de la Suisse (to 1516), was never published. His works, based on meticulous

[German Version] Franeker, principal town in the district of Franekeradeel in the Dutch province of Friesland. In 1585, the governor of Friesland, Count William Louis of Nassau, founded the second university in the northern Netherlands (after Leiden, 1575) with faculties of theology, law, the arts, and (from 1589) medicine. As a result of the attendance of numerous students from western Germany, Hungary, and the Scandinavian countries, the university attained European stature during the 17th century. Its first r…

[German Version] (Jul 14, 1634, Paris – Dec 2, 1719, Amsterdam). After studying theology, Quesnel joined the Oratorians in 1657. Ordained to the priesthood in 1659, he became director of the order’s school in Paris. His early Réflexions morales sur le Nouveau Testament (1668; ET: The New Testament, with Moral Reflections upon Every Verse…

[German Version] (Mar/Apr 1577, Heidelberg – Mar 17, 1649, Amsterdam), philologist and Reformed theologian. After studying philosophy and theology at Leiden, he was appointed rector of the Latin ¶ school in Dordrecht in 1600; in 1615, with the help of his friend H. Grotius, he was appointed dean of the theological college in Leiden. He lost that position in 1619 on account of his contacts with the Remonstrants (Remonstration), but in 1622 he was installed in the newly created chair of rhetoric and history at Leiden. In…

[German Version] (Makowski; 1588, Lobzenic, Poland – Jun 24, 1644, Franeker, the Netherlands) attended secondary school in Danzig and studied in various places including Heidelberg. In 1614 in Franeker he became a doctor of theology, and already in 1615 was appointed there to the post of professor of theology and physics. By his Aristotelian teaching he made a significant contribution to the development of Reformed orthodoxy (II, 2.b). His supralapsarian teaching on predestination (Predestination: II…

[German Version] (Schröder; c. 1560, Schönfließ, Brandenburg – 1626, Großen-Englis, Hesse), Reformed theologian. Pastor in Rietberg since 1585, he was expelled by Paderborn Jesuits in 1607 and later became pastor in Ropperhausen (Hesse). His 1606 Brennende Fackel attacking the Jesuits has not survived. His Kurzer, doch gründlicher Bericht, published in 1612, describes his shift from Lutheranism to Calvinism, although he is at pains to point out what they have in common. Christoph Strohm …

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[German Version] I. History The Reformed League (Reformierter Bund) was founded in August 1884 at a conference in Marburg commemorating the 400th anniversary of Zwingli’s birth; as a registered association, its purpose was defined as “preservation and cultivation of the goods and bounties of the Reformed Church.” It was conceived as a loose association of churches, congregations, and individual members, seeking to strengthen Reformed identity in light of the Lutheran preponderance in Germany, which…

[German Version] (Braunius; 1628, Kaiserslautern – 1708, Groningen) studied under J. Cocceius in Leiden. After preaching in Zeeland, Delft, and, from 1661, in Nijmegen, Braun became professor there in 1665 and professor of theology and Hebrew in Groningen in 1680. The further development of Cocceius's federal theology by incorporating Cartesian philosophy brought him into conflict with his colleague Johannes à Marck, who accused him, among other things, of Sabellianism (Sabellius/Sabellians). In the work La véritable religion des Hollandois (1675) Braun defended …

[German Version] 1. Menso (…

[German Version] (Feb 11, 1556, Utrecht – Sep 4, 1644, The Hague), leader of the Dutch Remonstrants (Remonstration). Together with J. Arminius, he studied with T. Beza in Geneva from 1580 to 1584. In 1584 he was appointed pastor in Utrecht and in 1591 in The Hague, where he served as theological adviser to J. van Oldenbarnevelt and (after 1601) as court and military chaplain of Maurice of Orange. Against the orthodox Calvinists he defended the teachings of Arminius; after the latter’s death, he joined with others to compose the five articles of the …

[German Version] (1529/1530, Doornik [Tournai] – Jul 15, 1602, Amsterdam), Reformed theologian. After studying with Calvin and T. Beza in Geneva from 1558 to 1560, he served churches in Aachen, Metz, Antwerp, Heidelberg, and (at the end of his life) in Amsterdam. In 1571 he played a leading role at the Dutch synod in Emden; from 1574 to 1583 he served as court chaplain to William of Orange. With his emphasis on the inward experience of grace and his …

[German Version] (1653, Dolberg/Mark – Jul 12, 1718, Amsterdam), Reformed theologian. Following study in Utrecht under F. Burman (1), in Groningen under J. Alting, and in Zürich under J.H. Heidegger, Roëll became court preacher in Herford in 1679, and pastor in Leeuwarden in 1680, and in Deventer in 1682. From 1686 he taught philosophy and theology at Franeker University, and from 1704 theology in Utrecht. He was a moderate Cocceian Cartesian (J. Cocceius, R. Descartes), whose theology was based on the concept of …

[German Version] (Aug 4/5, 1540 Agen, Département Lot-et-Garonne – Jan 21, 1609, Leiden). After initial instruction at home by his father, Scaliger studied in Paris, where he joined the Huguenots in 1562. From 1572 to 1574 he taught at the academy in…

[German Version] (Aug 9, 1599, Oisemont, Picardy – May 18, 1673, Groningen). After studying in Paris, Saumur, and Geneva, Maresius became a pastor in L…

[German Version] (Feb 4, 1563, Goldberg, Silesia [Złotoryja, Poland] – Aug 1, 1633, Paris), Reformed theologian. After studying in Germany, Tilenus was appointed professor of theology at the Academy of Sedan. In his dispute with P. Du Moulin over the interpretation of the …

[German Version] (Gentilis; c. 1520 Cosenza, Calabria – Sep 10, 1566, Bern), a humanist, joined the Italian refugee community in Geneva after his flight from Italy in 1557. Under the influence of M. Gribaldi, he ¶ criticized the church's doctrine of the Trinity and, thus, came into conflict with the Genevan authorities. …

[German Version] I. History and Theology 1. Terminology. For programmatic theological reasons, the Reformed churches rejected the exonym Calvinist churches. They referred to themselves as Reformed churches because they did not think of themselves as new churchdoms alongside the one holy church but as a part of that church, albeit as part of it renewed according to God’s Word in Holy Scripture. In speaking of themselves, therefore, they eschewed references to a theological founder or a particular place of origin. The 17th-century formula ecclesia reformata semper reformanda means …

[German Version] (1541 – Oct 15, 1608, Geneva), son of a Paris conseiller du Parlement, Perrot probably studied law at Bourges; in 1564 he studied theology at Geneva. He served as pastor in Moens (Ain) and Genthod until 1567, when he moved to Geneva. From 1570 to 1572 and from 1588 to 1592, he was rector of the Geneva Academy and frequently substituted for T. Beza as teacher of theology; in 1598 he was appointed professor of theology. Irenically inclined, his demand for toleration and especially for abolishing the mandatory signing of the Formula confessionis fidei by the students drew cr…

[German Version] (c. 1520, Seville [?] – Mar 15, 1594, Frankfurt am Main). On account of his Protestant views, in 1557 he fled from Spain to the Netherlands, England, and finally Frankfurt am Main. From 1559 to 1563 he served as pastor to the Spanish Protestant community in London and from 1578 to 1585 as pastor to the Lutheran community in Antwerp. Later he spent most of his time in Frankfurt. His most important work, a Spanish translation of the Bible, was published in Basel in 1569.…

[German Version] (1565, in the Dauphiné – Oct 17, 1621, Montauban) studied theology in Geneva (1583–1589) and, after serving as pastor in various congregations, he became his father's s…

[German Version] In the southern French principality of Orange, which by inheritance had come to belong to the house of Nassau-Orange, the Reformation had taken an early hold. Orange, however, lost its sovereignty in the War of the Spanish Succession, and in 1703 Louis XIV issued a decree banning the Reformed church there. Those exiled for their faith, called Orangeois, mostly settled in Brandenburg-Prussia (Burg…

[German Version] The Rijksuniversiteit Groningen was established by the provinces on Nov 26, 1612 as the third university in the northern Netherlands following Leiden (1575) and Franeker (1585) and was opened on Aug 23, 1614 in a former monastery. It included chairs for theology, law, medicine, philosophy, history and mathematics. The first rector was the Calvinist East-Frisian historian, Ubo Emmius (1547– 1625). Through many foreign students and outstanding scholars, the university gained a lofty…

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[German Version] A year after the annexation of Vaud in 1536, the Bernese council established an a…

[German Version] 1. Friedrich, the Elder ( Jan 1, 1600, Amberg – May 14, 1649, Leiden), Reformed theologian. He was appointed professor of theology in Geneva in 1626 and professor of theology in 1631; from 1633 to 1637 he served as rector of the university. He was appointed professor of theology in Leiden in 1642 and in 1648 he became pastor of the Walloon congregation there. He was a champion of strict Reformed orthodoxy as defined by the Synod of Dort, rejecting such theological positions as M. Amyraut’s doctrine of grace. Christoph Strohm Bibliography C. Borgeaud, Histoire de l’univers…

[German Version] In the Middle Ages, this city in the Ardennes was in the borderland between the French kingdom and the German Empire; in the late 16th century, it became an important haven for persecuted Protestants. In 1601 the sovereign Henri de la Tour elevated a school founded in 1579 to the status of a Reformed academy, with fac…

[German Version] (Jan 29, 1718, Bédarieux, Département Hérault – Sep 25, 1794, Nîmes). At an early age, he joined with Jean Bétrine (1718–1756) and for four years shared with him the dangerous life of an itinerant preacher of the “church in the desert.” In 1738 he was formally admitted as a preacher in Nîmes; in 1740/1741 he studied with A. Court for six months at the theological seminary in Lausanne. During the following 40 years of his ministry as a pastor of the persecuted Reformed Church in Fr…

[German Version] (du Jon; May 1, 1545, Bourges – Oct 13, 1602, Leiden). After studying law in Bourges and theology in Geneva with T. Beza, Junius became the French preacher in Antwerp in 1565 and in the Electoral Palatinate in 1567. There, from 1573 onward, he collaborated with I. Tremellius on a Latin translation of the Old Testament. In 1576, he became professor of theology in Neustadt an der Haardt, in …

[German Version] (1688, Paris – Feb 2, 1753, Ampleben, near Wolfenbüttel). Influenced by the writings of the quietist mystic A. Bourignon, Marsay, of a noble Huguenot family, left military service in 1711 to retire from the world and lead a contemplative life with the colony of exiles on the property of the countess of Wittgenstein at Schwarzenau, near Berleburg. After 1712 Marsay, in a spiritual marriage with Clara Elisabeth v. Callenberg, lived an unsettled life in various places as a spiritual …

[German Version] (c. 1555 Langwarden, Butjadingen, Lower Saxony – Jan 10, 1625, Franeker, The Netherlands). After studying at Wittenberg, Geneva, Marburg, and Neustadt an der Haardt and a brie…

[German Version] (1633, Amersfoort – Nov 13, 1690, Amsterdam), Reformed theologian. After studying at Utrecht, Groningen, and Geneva, he became pastor of the Walloon congregation in Groningen in 1658 and Middelburg in 1662; in 1664 he was also appointed pastor and professor of church history in Utrecht and in 1670 in Amsterdam. He opposed Spinozism (B. Spinoza), but as a supporter of Cartesianism he was himself exposed to constant charges of deficient orthodoxy by the adherents of G. Voetius.…

[German Version] 1. Lucas the Elder (1542, Erin, near Douai – Aug 28, 1602, Leiden), Reformed theologian. After studying at Paris and stays in London, Lille, Brussels, and Antwerp, in 1585 he was appointed pastor of the French congregation in Leiden; in 1587 he was also appointed professor of theology at the University of Leiden. Christoph Strohm Bibliography Works: see 2 below. On Trelcatius: A. Eekhof, De theologische faculteit te Leiden in de 17de eeuw, 1921 (Dutch) H.L. Clotz, Hochschule für Holland. Die Universität Leiden im Spannungsfeld zwischen Provinz, Stadt und K…

[German Version] (Aug 17, 1811, Vleuten, near Utrecht – Apr 10, 1885, Leiden), preacher in Meerkerk in 1840, professor in Franeker in 1840, associate professor of New Testament and dogmatics in Leiden in 1843, promoted to full professor in 1845; from 1877 professor of the philosophy of religion. Influenced by the Tübingen (I) school, Scholten wrote topical studies on the history of early Christian literature, putting historical-critical insigh…

[German Version] I. History of Religion Instances in which a certain share of a person’s gains were ceded to the gods are known from the religions of the ancient Near East and of Classical Antiquity; on the evidence of the Old Testament (e.g. Lev 27:32f.; 1 Sam 8:15), Judaism and Christianity were also familiar with tithing (see III, IV below). Even the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons), which only cultivates a loose relationship to biblical tradition, takes up this notion in the B…

[German Version] I. History of Religion – II. The Early Church – III. Middle Ages, Reformation, Counter-reformation – IV. The Modern Period – V. Martyrs of the Orthodox Church – VI. Judaism – VII. Islam – VIII. Missiology I. History of Religion The term martyrium (Greek μαρτύριον/ martúrion) was coined in early Christianity, where it denotes a self-sacrificial death in religious conflict as a witness to faith Historical and systematic references are found in many contexts, in which comparable terms imply something slightly different. For example, the Islamic šahīd, “witness,” generaly falls in battle and submits to that fate motivated by the hope of paradise (V). In Christian usage, martyrium and closely related forms give prominence to patience in suffering, in some circumstances the self-chosen suff…

[German Version] (1592, Geneva – May 2, 1657, Paris), became pastor of the Reformed congregation in Paris after studying at the Huguenot Academy of Saumur and was president of the national synod at Charenton in 1631. His ability to formulate knowledgeable as well as reasonable argumentation on issues of controversial theology, which he amply demonstrated in debates and in publications, made him one of the main pillars of French Protestantism in the first half of the 17th cen…

[German Version] The three Le Maistre brothers were Jansenist theologians (Jansenism). The oldest, Antoine (May 2, 1608, Paris – Nov 4, 1658, Port Royal), was a successful lawyer in Paris and came under the influence of J. Duvergier de Hauranne, one of the first hermits in Port-Royal Abbey. Known for his piety, Antoine wrote apologies and, among other writings, also a biography of Bernard of Clairvaux. He began a Bible translation that was continued by the youngest brother, Isaac Louis (Mar 29, 1613, Paris – Jan 4, 1684, Pomponne; called Le Maistre de Sacy), who was the mo…

[German Version] (Wits; Feb 12, 1636, Enkhuizen – Oct 22, 1708, Leiden), Reformed theologian. After studying at Utrecht and Groningen, he served as pastor in Westwoud, Wormer, Goes, and Leeuwarden from 1657 to 1675, then as professor of theology at Frankener (1675–1680), Utrecht (1680–1698), and Leiden (1698–1707). Influenced by G. Voetius, he developed a federal theology, more bi…

[German Version] (Henri de Valois; Sep 10, 1603, Paris – May 7, 1676, Paris), philologist. After studying law in Bourges from 1622 to 1624, he worked as a parliamentary…

[German Version] (Placeus; 1596, Saumur – 1655/ 1656, Saumur). After theological studies under J. Cameron in Saumur, Place became professor of philosophy and history in Saumur in 1621, pastor in Nantes in 1625, and professor of theology in Saumur in 1633. Along with his friends M. Amyraut and L. Cappellus, he moderated strict Calvinism by emphasizing ethical and general human aspects, for example, in modifying the doctrine of original sin. With reference to Calvin, and on account of his interest i…

[German Version] (Cloppenburg; May 13, 1592, Amsterdam – Jul 30, 1652, Franeker) studied theology in Leiden under F. Gomarus and Johannes Polyander, as well as at several foreign universities, not…

[German Version] (Jan 6, 1677, Nîmes – Dec 30, 1730, The Hague), Reformed preacher and theologian. After fleeing from France in 1686 following the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (Huguenots: I, 1) and studying in Geneva, he became a pastor of refugee congregations in London, then after 1705 in The Hague. He gained a reputation as an outstanding preacher and used it in support of persecuted coreligionists. Moderately orthodox and totally averse to polemic, his biblical interpretations were primarily in the service of apologetic and ethical goals.…

[German Version] (Fr. gueux, “beggar”), originally a taunt, soon the self-designation of Dutch aristocracy who opposed Spanish domination and Catholic persecutions of believers in the last third of the 16th century. The designation probably originated when one of the advisers of the Governor General, Margareta of Parma, upon being presented with a petition concerning, inter alia…

[German Version] (Molinaeus; Oct 16 or 18, 1568, Castle Buhy en Vexin – Mar 10, 1658, Sedan) studied at the Protestant academy in Sedan; became a tutor in England in 1588; was professor of Greek language and philosophy in Leiden, 1592–1598; and pastored the Reformed congregation in Charenton near Paris, 1599–1620. From 1621 until his death, he was preacher and …

[German Version] I. Religious Studies Peace (negatively: absence of fighting and war; positively: security, wellbeing, and harmony) is considered desirable in all traditional religions, although they also have their specific legitimations of war. In archaic religions, peace is primarily related to the community and understood as a present reality. However, from the beginning of the Christian era, religious developments produced stronger differentiations. Peace…

[German Version] Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange, took the city in 1591. In the 17th century, it was already home to a Latin school and a Calvinist academy, founded in 1655, at which noted theologians like C. Wittig and J. Braun taught. In 1679 the chaos of war forced the academy to close. Attempts to reestablish it in the 18th century failed. Not until 1923, after almost 20 years of efforts on the part of the Sankt Radboud Foundation, was the Catholic University of Nijmegen founded as a count…

[German Version] (1579, Glasgow – Nov 27, 1625, Montauban) went to France around 1600 and was initially active as a teacher in the vicinity of Humaniora. After studying in Paris, Geneva, and Heidelberg, he became pastor in Bordeaux in 1608, professor of theology at the Protestant academy in Saumur in 1618 and in Montauban in 1624. In the disputes with the Arminians, Cameron defended the Calvinist doctrine of predestination, but modified it…

[German Version] I. Old Testament – II. Judaism – III. New Testament – IV. Church History – V. Dogmatics and Ethics – VI. Practical Theology I. Old Testament The designation Decalogue (“ten words”) for the series of ten commandments derives from the Greek translation of the Hebrew ʾaśeret haddebārîm (δεκάλογος “ten words”). It is employed in late deuteronomic theory in Deut 10:4 for the Decalogue, in Deut 5:6–21 and by the post-dtr. redaction of the …

[English Version] Vossius, Gerardus Joannis (März/April 1577 Heidelberg – 17.3.1649 Amsterdam), Philologe und ref. Theologe, wurde nach Studium der Philos. u…

[English Version] Sibel, Kaspar (9.6.1590 Gut Bardt bei Elberfeld – 1.1.1658 Deventer), ref. Theologe, wurde nach dem Studium in Herborn, Siegen und Leiden 1609 Pfarrer in Randerath (Jülich) und 1617 in Deventer. Als Teilnehmer der Dordrechter Synode 1618/19 vertrat S., der auch an der niederländischen NT-Übers. mitgearbeitet hat, eine gemäßigte Orthodoxie (: II.,2., b). Christoph Strohm Bibliography J. Reitsma, Geschiedenis van de Hervorming en de Hervormde kerk der Nederlanden, 51949.

[English Version] I. ReligionsgeschichtlichAbgaben eines Teiles des Gewinns an die Götter sind aus den Rel. des AO und der klassischen Antike bekannt und ausgehend vom AT (z.B. Lev 27,32f.; 1Sam 8,15) kennen das Judentum und das Christentum Z. (s.u. III., IV.). Auch die in einem erweiterten Sinn in der bibl. Tradition stehende »Kirche Jesu Christi der Heiligen der Letzten Tage« (Mormonen) greift diese Vorstellung im Buch Mormon auf (vgl. Alma 13,14f.), begründet sie aber neu durch eine Offenbarung…

[English Version] (de la Place), Josue´ (1596 Saumur – 1655/56 ebd.), wurde nach dem Studium der Theol. in Saumur bei J. Camero 1621 Prof. für Philos. und Gesch. ebd., 1625 Pfarrer in Nantes und 1633 Prof. für Theol. wiederum in Saumur. Mit den befreundeten M. Amyraut und L. Cappellus milderte er den strengen Calvinismus durch die Hervorhebung ethischer und allgemeinmenschlicher Aspekte, so z.B. in der Modifikation der Lehre von der Erbsünde. Mit Berufung auf Calvin und aus Interesse an der moralisch…

[English Version] I. Geschichte Der Ref. B. wurde im August 1884 auf einer anläßlich des 400. Geburtstags Zwinglis abgehaltenen Tagung in Marburg als eingetragener Verein »zur Wahrung und Pflege der …

[English Version] Scholten,  Johann Heinrich (17.8.1811 Vleuten bei Utrecht – 10.4.1885 Leiden), 1837 Prediger in Meerkerk, 1840 Prof. in Franeker, 1843 a.o. Prof. und 1845 o. Prof. für NT und Dogmatik in Leiden, seit 1877 für Religionsphilos. Sch. hat unter dem Einfluß der Tübinger Schule (Tübingen: I.) einschlägige Werke zur Gesch. der urch…

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[English Version] Tilenus, Daniel (4.2.1563 Goldberg, Schlesien – 1.8.1633 Paris), ref. Theologe, wurde nach Studien in Deutschland …

[English Version] Pajon, Claude (1626 Romorantin, De´partement Loir-et Cher – 27.9.1685 Carre´ bei Orle´ans), wurde nach dem Theologiestudium in Saumur 1650 Pastor in Marchenoir und nach 1666 Theologieprof. in Saumur. Als Schüler von M. Amyraut und J. Camero vertrat er deren Auffassungen in der Gnaden- und Prädestinationslehre und suchte der Lehrverurteilung durch die Übernahme eines Pfarramts in Orle´ans …

[English Version] Taffin, Jean (1529/30 Doornik [Tournai] – 15.7.1602 Amsterdam), ref. Theologe, war nach dem Studium bei Calvin und Th. Beza in Genf 1558–1560 Pfarrer in Aachen, Metz, Antwerpen, Heidelberg und am Ende seines Lebens in Haarlem und Amsterdam. 1571 nahm er führend an der niederländischen Syno…

[English Version] . Bereits im 17.Jh. befand sich in der 1591 durch Moritz von Oranien eingenommenen Stadt N. eine Lateinschule und eine calvinistische Akademie, an der bekannte Theologen wie Ch. Wittich und J. Braun lehrten. Kriegswirren machten der 1655 gegründeten Akademie 1679 ein Ende. Versuche einer Neugründung im 18.Jh. scheiterten. Erst 1923…

[English Version] Reina, Cassiodoro de (um 1520 Sevilla [?] – 15.3.1594 Frankfurt/M.). R. floh 1557 wegen ev. Auffassungen aus Spanien über die Niederlande und England nach Frankfurt/M. Von 1559 bis 1563 war er Pfarrer der ev. Spa…

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[English Version] , Hermann (12.2.1636 Enkhuizen – 22.10.1708 Leiden), ref. Theologe, war nach Studium in Utrecht und Groningen 1657–1675 Pfarrer in Westwoud, Wormer, Goes und Leeuwarden, sodann Prof. der Theol. in Franeker (1675–1680), Utrecht (1680–1698) und Leiden (1698–1707). Durch …

[English Version] Rabaut, Paul (29.1.1718 Bédarieux, Département Hérault – 25.9.1794 Nîmes), schloß sich schon in jugendlichem Alter Jean Bétrine (1718–1756) an und teilte mit diesem vier Jahre lang das gefährliche Wanderleben des Predigers der »Kirche in de…

[English Version] , Christoph (7.10.1625 Brieg – 19.5.1687 Leiden), ref. Theologe, studierte zuerst Jurisprudenz, dann Theol. in Bremen, Groningen und Leiden, wo er die Philos. R. Descartes' kennenlernte. 1650 Prof. der Philos. in Herborn, 1652 Pfarrer in Duisburg, 1655 Prof. der Theol. in Nijmwegen und 1671 in Leiden, schloß er sich der…

[English Version] . Die Stadt in den Ardennen, die im MA im Grenzbereich des franz. Königreiches und des dt. Reiches lag, wurde am Ende des 16.Jh. ein wichtiger Rückzugsort verfolgter Protestanten. Der Landesherr Henri de la Tour er…

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[English Version] . Im südfranz. Fürstentum Orange, das durch Erbschaft an das Haus Nassau-Oranien gekommen war, hatte…

[English Version] Saurin, Jacques (6.1.1677 Nîmes – 30.12.1730 Den Haag), ref. Prediger und Theologe, wurde nach Flucht aus Frankreich 1686 infolge der Aufhebung des Edikts von Nantes (Hugenotten: I.,1.) und nach Studium in Genf 1701 Pfarrer von Flüchtlingsgemeinden in London und seit 1705 in Den Haag. S. erlangte den Ruf eines hervorrage…

[English Version] (Wtenbogaert), Johannes (11.2.1557 Utrecht – 4.9.1644 Den Haag), Führer der niederländischen Remonstranten (Remonstration), studierte mit J. Arminius 1580–1584 bei Th. Beza in Genf und war 1584 Pfarrer in Utrecht und 1591 in Den Haag, wo er theol. Berater J. van Oldenbarnevelts und seit 1601 auch Hof- und Feldprediger Moritz' von Oranien wurde. Im Streit mit den orth. Calvinisten verteidigte er die Lehren des Arminius und verfa…

[English Version] 1.  Friedrich (d. Ä.; 1.1.1600 Amberg – 14.5.1649 Leiden), ref. Theologe, wurde 1626 Prof. der Philos. in Genf, 1631 der Theol. und 1633–1637 Rektor ebd. Seit 1642 Prof. der Theol. in Leiden und 1648 auch Pfarrer der wallonischen Gemeinde, war er ein Vertreter der strengen ref. Orthodoxie der Dordrechter Synode, der u.a. M. Amyrauts Gnadenlehre verwarf. Christoph Strohm Bibliography C. Borgeaud, Histoire de l'Université de Genève, 1900, 348–353. 2.  Ezechiel (7.12.1629 Genf – 7.11.1710 London), Sohn von 1., studierte Theol. und Philol. in Leiden…

[English Version] I. Geschichtlich und konfessionskundlich 1.  Begriff Aus programmatischen theol. Gründen lehnten die ref. K. die Fremdbez. »calvinistische Kirchen« ab. Sie bezeichneten sich selbst als ref. K., weil sie sich nicht als neue Kirchentümer neben der einen, hl. Kirche verstanden, sondern als deren Glied, aber als Glied einer nach dem Gotteswort der Hl. Schrift erneuerten Kirche. Darum vermieden sie in ihrer Selbstbez. Bezüge auf einen theol. Stifter oder einen bestimmten Entstehungsort. Di…

[English Version] Saurin, Elias (28.8.1639 Usseaux, Dauphiné – 8.4.1703 Utrecht), wurde 1661 Pfarrer in Venterol (Drôme) und Embrun, mußte aber 1664 wegen seines ref. Bekenntnisses aus der franz. Schweiz nach Holland fliehen, wo er 1664 Pfarrer der wallonischen Gemeinde in Delft und 1670 Pfarrer in Utrecht wurde. S. wirkte an der Untersuchung gegen J. de  Labadie mit und betonte in gewisser Nähe zum Sozinianismus (Sozinianer) gegen P. Jurieu die Gewissensfreiheit. Beeinflußt von der myst. Theol. F.…

[English Version] Roëll, Hermann Alexander (1653 Dolberg, Grafschaft Mark – 12.7.1718 Amsterdam), ref. Theologe, wurde nach Studium in Utrecht bei F. Burman (1.), in Groningen bei J. Alting und in Zürich bei J.H. Heidegger 1679 Hofprediger in Herford, 1680 in Leeuwarden und 1682 Pfarrer in Deventer. Von 1686 an lehrte er an der Universität Franeker Philos. und Theol. sowie seit 1704 Theol. in Utrecht. Die Theol. des moderaten coccejanischen Cartesianers (J. Coccejus, R. Descartes) geht vom Begriff d…

[English Version] 1.  Lucas d. Ä. , (1542 Erin bei Douai – 28.8.1602 Leiden), ref. Theologe, wurde nach dem Studium in Paris und Aufenthalten in London, Lille, Brüssel und Antwerpen 1585 Pfarrer der franz. Gemeinde in Leiden und 1587 auch Prof. der Theol. an der Universität ebd. Christoph Strohm Bibliography Werke s.u. 2. Über T.: A. Eekhof, De theologische faculteit de Leiden in de 17de eeuw, 1921 H.L. Clotz, Hochschule für Holland. Die Universität Leiden im Spannungsfeld zw. Provinz, Stadt und Kirche, 1575–1619, 1998. 2.  Lucas d.J. (25.4.1570 London – 12.9.1607 Leiden), Soh…

[English Version] I. Zum BegriffDer Begriff Z. geht zurück auf census (lat. Steuerkataster). Konzeptuell dem heutigen Z. vergleichbar sind jedoch erst die ma. censuales oder censuarii, (anfangs noch abhängige) »Zinsleute«, die dem Herrn für die Nutzung von Land periodisch Abgaben entrichteten. Der Z. mochte hier noch immer eine (hoheitliche) Abgabe sein, entscheidend war jetzt jedoch erstmals und blieb seitdem: die Zahlung für die Nutzungsüberlassung, typischerweise periodisch, stets…

[English Version] Quesnel, Pasquier (Paschasius; 14.7.1634 Paris – 2.12.1719 Amsterdam), trat nach dem Studium der Theol. 1657 bei den Oratorianern ein, w…

[English Version] (Schröder), Jakob (ca.1560 Schönfließ, Brandenburg – 1626 Großen-Englis, Hessen), ref. Theologe, wurde als Pfarrer (seit 1585) in Rietberg 1607 von Paderborner Jesuiten vertrieben und später Pfarrer in Ropperhausen (Hessen). Seine gegen die Jesuiten 1606 vf. »Brennende Fackel« ist nicht erhalten. Ein 1612 gedr. »Kurzer, doch gründlicher…

[English Version] Salmasius, Claudius (Claude de Saumaise; 15.4.1588 Semur-en-Auxois, Bourgogne – 3.9.1653 Spa), Philologe und Jurist, studierte bei I. Casaubonus in Paris und bei Dionysius Gothofredus (1549–1622) in Heidelberg. Schon früh veröff. er komm. Editionen und Werke zur Gesch. der Alten Kirche, wies den Primatsanspruch des Papstes zurück und setzte sich krit. mit den Jesuiten auseinander. Da ihm wegen seines calvinistischen Bekenntnisses die vorgesehene Beamtenlaufbahn in Dijon unmöglich …

[English Version] Valesius, Heinrich (Henri de Valois; 10.9.1603 Paris – 7.5.1676 ebd.), Philologe, war nach dem Jurastudium in Bourges 1622–1624 als Parlamentsadvokat in Paris tätig, widmete sich aber seit 1630 philol. Arbeiten. 1634 erschien eine erste Edition griech. Kirchenväter, seit 1650 arbeitete er im Auftrag des franz. Episkopats an der Edition der griech. Kirchenhistoriker (Eusebius von Caesarea, 1659; Sokrates und Sozomenus, 1668; Theodoret von Cyrus und Evagrius Ponticus, 1673). Christoph Strohm Bibliography A.de Valois, De vita Henrici Valesii histori…

[English Version] Scaliger, Joseph Justus (4./5.8.1540 Agen, Département Lot-et-Garonne – 21.1.1609 Leiden), studierte nach erstem Unterricht durch den Vater in Paris, wo er sich 1562 den Hugenotten anschloß. 1572–1574 lehrte er an der Akademie in Genf (: II.) und lebte dann als Privatgelehrter, bis er 1593 als Nachfolger J. Lipsius' auf den Lehrstuhl für alte Sprachen nach Leiden berufen wurde. In zahlreichen Editionen antiker Schriften erwies er sich als hervorragender Textkritiker. Als Be…

[English Version] , Ludovicus von (1633 Ammersfoort – 13.11.1690 Amsterdam), ref. Theologe, wurde nach Studium in Utrecht, Groningen und Genf 1658 Pfarrer der wallonischen Gemeinde in Groningen und 1662 in Middelburg, 1664 zugleich Pfarrer und Prof. für Kirchengesch. in Utrecht und 1670 in Amsterdam. W. wandte sich gegen den Spinozismus (B. de Spinoza), war aber als Anhänger des Cartesianismus selbst dauernden Vorwürfen mangelnder Rechtgläubigkeit von seiten der Voetianer (G. Voetius) ausgesetzt.…

[English Version] 1.  Matthias , (27.10.1618 Süchteln/Niederrhein – 9.10.1686 Herborn), wurde nach dem Besuch des Gymnasiums in Wesel (ab 1632) und des Studiums der Philos. und Theol. in Harderwijk, Deventer und Utrecht 1646 Pfarrer und Rektor in Kleve. Durch die Vermittlung G. Voetius' erhielt er 1654 einen Ruf als Prof. der Theol. in Utrecht, wurde dort aber 1662 wegen einer polemischen Schrift gegen S. Maresius im Streit um die ref. Kapitelgüter abgesetzt. Von 1669 bis zu seinem Tod war N. Prof. …