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Just as today, the donkey was in many regions of the Mediterranean one of the most often used domestic animals of antiquity. It was ridden, burdened with a packsaddle or hitched in front of a cart and wa…

[German version] A. Introduction Investigation into land transport (LT) in antiquity is made difficult today because of the controversies and polemics that distinguishes much of the scholarship on the subject. The predominant viewpoint until about 1960 underestimated the significance of LT because of considerations of economic or technical history. The dichotomous view of history in Lefèbvre des Noëttes [8] - who proposed the thesis that antiquity was not capable of economic development due to inade…

[German version] A. Introduction Hybrids of a male ass and a mare (mule: ἡμίονος/ hēmíonos; Latin mulus/ mula; also ὀρεύς/ oreús from ὄρος/ όros, ‘mountain’) or of a stallion and a female ass (hinny: γίννος/ gínnos; Latin hinnus/ hinna) are frequently mentioned in ancient literature. In antiquity, just as in the Middle Ages and in the early modern period, mules had great significance in agriculture and transportation. Besides horses, which were put to intensive economic use in western Europe from the 11th cent. until the beginning of the 20th cent., in pre-industrial societies mules were excellent draught animals if a heavy load had to be carried, a long distance covered or a certain speed attained. For transporting people and goods there was no comparable means of transportation. Faster than an ox (Cattle), ‘nobler’ and more efficient than an ass (Donkey), more resistant and less susceptible to diseases than a horse, a mule combined numerous qualities already recognised in antiquity. Mules in particular inherit from the horse and the ass valuable properties, such as a considerable size, a supple musculature, a beautifully straight back, firm hooves, a sure foot, a gentle character and excellent persistence. It can carry a load on its back of half its own weight, and harnessed to a light cart its trot is regular and comfortable for passengers; for riding, a mule is surer than a horse on difficult terrain. In an investigation into the productivity of mules and other important draught animals, a working day of 6 to 8 hours with a plough yielded for a mule an average force of 260 N. at a speed of 1·1…

Der E. war wie noch heute in vielen Regionen des Mittelmeerraumes in der Ant. eines der am meisten beanspruchten Nutztiere des Menschen. Geritten, mit einem Packsattel beladen oder vor de…

[English version] A. Einführung Die Unt. des L. in der Ant. ist h. deswegen so schwierig, weil der Gegenstand von der Forsch. oft kontrovers und polemisch diskutiert wurde. Die etwa bis 1960 herrschende Auffassung hat aufgrund von wirtschafts- oder technikhistor. Überlegungen die Bed. des L. gering eingeschätzt. Die dichotomische Sicht der Gesch. bei Lefèbvre des Noëttes [8] - der die These aufstellte, die Ant. sei wegen einer unzureichenden Anschirrung der Zugtiere wirtschaftl. nicht entwicklungsfä…

[English version] A. Einführung Die Hybriden aus Eselshengst und Stute (Maultier: ἡμίονος/ hēmíonos; lat. mulus/ mula; auch ὀρεύς/ oreús von ὄρος, “Berg”) sowie aus Hengst und Eselin (Maulesel: γίννος/ gínnos; lat. hinnus/ hinna) werden in der ant. Lit. häuf…

[German version] I. Introduction The outstanding historical and cultural significance which has been attached to horses since the 2nd millennium BC - first to pull  war chariots, later primarily for riding - in the area of the ancient Orient and Graeco-Roman antiquity has meant that archaeologists in the last 100 years have focused on the (esp. early) history of the exploitation of this domestic animal far more than on that of all the others. Scientific discussion in the first half of the 20th cent.…

[English version] I. Einleitung Die herausragende kulturgesch. Bed., die dem P. seit dem 2. Jt.v.Chr. - zunächst als Fahrtier am Streitwagen, später v.a. al…

[German version] I. General information Cattle ( Bos taurus) belong to the bovine family and are descended from the Eurasian big-horned aurochs ( Bos primigenius). Longh…

[English version] I. Allgemein Das R. ( Bos taurus) gehört zu den bovidae und stammt von dem eurasischen, großhornigen Ur ( Bos primigenius) ab. Die Domestikation von langhornigen Wildrindern erfolgte in Zentralasien wahrscheinlich 10000 bis 8000 v. Chr. und im Vorderen Orient gegen 7000-6000 v. Chr. Im 3. Jt. v. Chr. verbreiteten sich in Europa verschiedene Rassen des Hausrindes. Bestände von…