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Literature

(23,376 words)

Author(s): Rüpke, Jörg (Erfurt) | Cancik-Kirschbaum, Eva (Berlin) | Quack, Joachim (Berlin) | Hazenbos, Joost (Leipzig) | Hose, Martin (Munich) | Et al.
[German version] I. General Literary communication is communication by means of texts - stabilized, co…

Ceremony

(3,932 words)

Author(s): Cancik-Kirschbaum, Eva (Berlin) | Quack, Joachim (Berlin) | Wiesehöfer, Josef (Kiel) | Winterling, Aloys (Bielefeld) | Tinnefeld, Franz (Munich)
[German version] I. Mesopotamia In contrast with cultic  rituals, the secular ceremonies of Mesopotamia have up to now rarely been the subject of academic research. On the whole…

Tabal

(46 words)

Author(s): Cancik-Kirschbaum, Eva (Berlin)
[German version] Name of a region and a principality in the southeast of central Anatolia. On its political role in the late Hittite period see Asia Minor III.C.1. Cancik-Kirschbaum, Eva (Berlin) Bibliography S. Aro, T. Zur Gesch. und materiellen Kultur des zentralanatolischen Hochplateaus von 1200-600 v. Chr., 1998.

Time, concepts of

(3,691 words)

Author(s): Cancik-Kirschbaum, Eva (Berlin) | H.WE.
[German version] I. Ancient Orient The concept of time in cuneiform cultures is characterized by cyclic and linear rhythms, ideas of beginning and end, before and after, repetition and change, progress, past, present, future, and 'eternity'/perpetuity. All these aspects can be grasped both notionally and conceptually in the transmitted sources, but are not the subject of a systematic, theoretical discourse. The languages of the cuneiform cultures ha…

Chronography

(3,691 words)

Author(s): Rüpke | Cancik-Kirschbaum, Eva (Berlin) | Quack, Joachim (Berlin) | Hollender, Elisabeth (Cologne) | Toral-Niehoff, Isabel (Freiburg)
I. General [German version] A. Notions of measuring time Most cultures have some method of measuring time, frequently based on periodical changes within nature or the stars. The oldest of these is the pars-pro-toto method, in which it is not a certain period of time as a whole that is connected, but a regularly recurring phenomenon within that time [1. 9 f.] (e.g. lunar phases). Metaphors of time or the measuring thereof play no great role in antiquity, with the exception of the field of  metrics. Usually, the focus was not on the precise measurement of time, but on the utilization of conventional time units such as generations or governments' terms of office. Accounts of time periods were of…

Science

(3,548 words)

Author(s): Cancik-Kirschbaum, Eva (Berlin) | Quack, Joachim (Berlin) | R.NE.
[German version] I. Mesopotamia The framework for the emergence of science, i.e. of a socially organized, systematic search for discoveries and their transmission, existed in Mesopotamia from the early 3rd millennium BC. It included social differentiation and the development of a script (Cuneiform script) which was soon applied outside administrative and economic contexts. The potential of numeracy and literacy, sustained by the professional group of scri…

Rulership

(2,483 words)

Author(s): Eder, Walter (Berlin) | Cancik-Kirschbaum, Eva (Berlin) | Kahl, Jochem (Münster) | Wiesehöfer, Josef (Kiel)
[German version] I. General Rulership is here understood as political rulership, i.e. a reciprocal social relationship serving to create and permanently preserve the social order through political organization. Rulership is based on fixed rules applying both to the ruler(s) and the ruled; thus those ruled generally assent blindly to the authority of the ruler(s), or are at least so minded as to tolerate it. As a system of order, rulership appears in different forms: in the ancient Near E…

Rulers

(2,915 words)

Author(s): Cancik-Kirschbaum, Eva (Berlin) | Kahl, Jochem (Münster) | Wiesehöfer, Josef (Kiel) | Eder, Walter (Berlin)
I. Ancient Orient [German version] A. Terminology Designations for rulers include: (1) descriptive terms like the Sumerian LUGAL (literally 'big man'), equated in vocabularies with the Akkadian

Number

(5,221 words)

Author(s): Cancik-Kirschbaum, Eva (Berlin) | I.A. | Folkerts | Folkerts, Menso (Munich) | Crubellier, Michel (Villeneuve d'Ascq) | Et al.
I. Mesopotamia [German version] A. Numerical systems Before systems for representing numbers in writing were (further) developed, counting stones, known as calculi or tokens, were used in arithmetic. As first-order representations they enabled operations such as increasing, decreasing, combining, separating, and distributing. Their relationship to the numerical notations recorded in the oldest ‘texts’ (

Herrscher

(2,558 words)

Author(s): Cancik-Kirschbaum, Eva (Berlin) | Kahl, Jochem (Münster) | Wiesehöfer, Josef (Kiel) | Eder, Walter (Bochum)
I. Alter Orient [English version] A. Terminologie Als Bezeichnungen für H. finden sich 1. beschreibende Begriffe wie sumer. lugal (wörtlich “großer Mann”), in Vokabularen gleichgesetzt mit akkad. šarru (“Glänzender(?)”), malku (“Ratgeber”, hebr. melek), hethit. ḥaššu- (“Wohlgeborener”); des weiteren sumer. nun und akkad. rubāum (“Vornehmster”), sowie sumer. en, akkad. bēlu, hethit. išḫa- (“Herr”); diese gelten unabhängig von Größe und Struktur des Herrschaftsbereiches. Fem.-Bildungen sind belegt. 2. kultur- und epochenspezifische Titel (darunt…

Herrschaft

(2,183 words)

Author(s): Eder, Walter (Bochum) | Cancik-Kirschbaum, Eva (Berlin) | Kahl, Jochem (Münster) | Wiesehöfer, Josef (Kiel)
[English version] I. Allgemein H. wird hier als politische H. verstanden, d.h. als wechselseitige soziale Beziehung, die zur Herstellung und dauerhaften Bewahrung der ges. Ordnung in polit. Verbänden dient. H. ruht auf festen Regeln, die sowohl für den oder die Träger der H. als auch für die Beherrschten gelten; dabei steht der Autorität des oder der Herrscher in der Regel eine unreflektierte Zustimmung, zumindest jedoch eine tendenzielle Toleranz der Beherrschten gegenüber. Als Ordnungssystem zeigt…