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[German version] (mʿ.t) is an intellectual concept that was a central component of religion and society in ancient Egypt. The basic principles of maat are order, justice, truth and communal action. Maat is given by the creator god to the king who makes maat rule on earth but also gives it back to the creator god. As a principle that creates order, maat contributes to the course of the world. Presented as a deity, Maat as the daughter of the sun god keeps the course of the sun in motion and thus also guarantees the order of the cosmos. In addition maat has a significant role in the judgem…

[German version] Greek rendering (φαραω/pharao) known from the Old Testament (Hebrew parō Gn 12:15 and passim) of the ancient Egyptian term for an Egyptian ruler. In Egypt, the term referred originally to the royal palace or court and literally means 'great house' (pr-). From Thutmosis III (1479-1426 BC) at the latest, this expression also designated the person of the Egyptian ruler. As a title before the name of the ruler, it is encountered from the 10th cent. BC onwards. Kahl, Jochem (Münster)

[German version] I. General Rulership is here understood as political rulership, i.e. a reciprocal social relationship serving to create and permanently preserve the social order through political organization. Rulership is based on fixed rules applying both to the ruler(s) and the ruled; thus those ruled generally assent blindly to the authority of the ruler(s), or are at least so minded as to tolerate it. As a system of order, rulership appears in different forms: in the ancient Near East and Egyp…

I. Ancient Orient [German version] A. Terminology Designations for rulers include: (1) descriptive terms like the Sumerian LUGAL (literally 'big man'), equated in vocabularies with the Akkadian šarru ('shining one(?)'), malku ('adviser', Hebrew melek), Hittite ḥaššu- ('well-born one'); furthermore, Sumerian NUN and Akkadian rubāum ('most excellent one'), and Sumerian EN, Akkadian bēlu, Hittite išḫa- ('lord'); these apply regardless of the size and structure of the area of rule. Feminine forms are recorded. (2) Culture and epoch specific titles (a…