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, a movement in the Egyptian Sudan, launched in 1881 by Muḥammad Aḥmad b. ʿAbd Allāh (Muḥammad al-Mahdī) for the reform of Islam. It had from the outset a political and revolutionary character, being directed against the Turco-Egyptian régime ( al-Turkiyya ), which it overthrew, establishing a territorial state. Under the Mahdī’s successsor, the K̲h̲alīfa ʿAbd Allāh [see ʿabd Allāh b. Muḥammad al-Taʿāʾis̲h̲ī , and K̲h̲alīfa. iv], this developed essentially into a traditional Islamic monarchy until its existence was ¶ terminated by the Anglo-Egyptian reconquest (1896-8). 1. Mahdis…

, a region of the upper Blue Nile, within the modern Republic of the Sudan, and near to the Ethiopian border. Its historical importance is solely due to the presence of alluvial gold. The ruler ( makk ) of Fāzūg̲h̲lī was a vassal of the Fund̲j̲ [ q.v.] sultan of Sinnār, and wore the horned cap ( taḳiyya umm ḳarnayn ) as his insignia of office. This usage long survived the downfall of the Fund̲j̲ sultanate (see A. W. M. Disney, The coronation of the Fung king of Fazoghli , in Sudan Notes and Records , xxvi/1, Khartoum 1945, 37-42, describing the investiture of a makk in 1944). In 1237/1821-22 Fāzūg̲…

Aḥmad , Egyptian historian of the 12th/18th century. Nothing is known of his life beyond the fact that he held the post of katk̲h̲udā of the ʿAzabān regiment in Cairo, but he may have been a relative of the rūznāmed̲j̲i Ḥasan Efendi al-Damurdās̲h̲ī, who flourished in the early 11th/17th century, and about whose doings he is well informed). His chronicle, al-Durra al-muṣāna fī ak̲h̲bār al-kināna , covers the period 1099-1169/1688-1755. It reveals unfamiliarity with Arabic, and the sense is sometimes garbled or obscure. Nevertheless it is …

, “the land of the Fūr”, a province of the Republic of the Sudan, formerly a Muslim sultanate. Geography and inhabitants. Dār Fūr was one of the chain of Muslim states composing bilād al-Sūdān . Its eastern neighbour was Kordofān, from which it was separated by a tract of sand-hills. To the west lay Waddāī. The Libyan desert formed a natural boundary on the north, while the marshes of the Baḥr al-G̲h̲azāl [ q.v.] marked the southern limits. Dār Fūr comprises three main zones: a northern zone, the steppe fringe of the Sahara, providing grazing for camel-owning tribes …

(1) A group of tribes in the Republic of the Sudan. The principal tribes of this group, mainly sedentary in their way of life, inhabit the banks of the main Nile from the Dongola [ q.v.] region southwards to the Fifth (Sabalūka) Cataract. Other tribes and clans in Kurdufān (Kordofan) and elsewhere attach themselves to this group. The link among the tribes of the D̲j̲aʿaliyyūn is traditionally expressed in genealogical form: their eponymous founder (rather than ancestor) is said to have been a certain Ibrāhīm known as D̲j̲aʿal ( i.e., “he made”, because he made himself a following fr…

(al-Malik al-As̲h̲raf Abu ’l-Naṣr min Ḳānṣawh al-Nāṣirī), the last Mamlūk sultan of Egypt, r. 922-3/1516-17. Born ca. 878/1474-5, he was purchased as a mamlūk by his paternal uncle Ḳānṣawh al-G̲h̲awrī [ q.v.], and presented to the reigning sultan, Ḳāʾit Bay [ q.v.], by whose son and successor, al-Nāṣir Muḥammad [ q.v.] he was manumitted. During Ḳānṣawh al-G̲h̲awrī’s sultanate his career prospered. Appointed dawādār kabīr in 913/1507, he became in effect the sultan’s chief minister, acquiring also the great offices of high steward ( ustādār al-ʿāliya ) and kās̲h̲if al-kus̲h̲s̲h̲āf . …

(Eduard Carl Oscar Theodor Schnitzer) was born on 28 March 1840 at Oppeln in Prussian Silesia. He graduated in medicine at Berlin in 1864. He entered the Ottoman service as a medical officer in Albania in 1865, and assumed the name of Ḵh̲ayr Allāh; later, in the Sudan, he became known as Meḥmed Emīn (Muḥammad Amīn, not al-A.). He went to Egypt in October 1875, whence he proceeded to khartoum, and (in May 1876) to Lado, the capital of the Equatorial Provinces, where he was appointed medical offic…

al-Kabīr al-Muḥammadī (i.e., the mamlūk of Muḥammad Bey Abu ’l-D̲h̲ahab) was raised to the beylicate in 1182/1768-9, and held the appointments of amīr al-ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ in 1186/1772-3 and daftardār in 1187/1773-4. When Abu ’l-D̲h̲ahab went on campaign against S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Ẓāhir al-ʿUmar (Muḥarram 1189/March 1775), he left Ibrāhīm as his deputy in command of Cairo. On his death, the ascendancy in Egypt passed to his retainers (the Muḥammadiyya) headed by Ibrāhīm and Murād Bey, the former becoming s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-balad . The characters of the two men were str…

(usually but incorrectly vocalized Ḳānṣūh al-G̲h̲ūrī), the penultimate Mamlūk sultan of Egypt, was of Circassian origin and a mamlūk of Sultan Ḳāʾitbāy. He was trained in the military school ( ṭabaḳa ) named al-G̲h̲awr. whence his nisba . He became governor ( kās̲h̲if ) of Upper Egypt (886/1481-2), was appointed an amīr of Ten (889/1484), and took part in operations against the Ottomans on the Syrian-Cilician frontier, during which time he was governor ( nāʾib ) of Ṭarsūs. In Rabīʿ II 894/March-April 1489 he was appointed grand chamberlain ( ḥād̲j̲ib al-ḥud̲j̲d̲j̲āb …

, a sovereign State, of the Muslim religion, for the most part Arabic-speaking, situated at the eastern end of the Fertile Crescent. i.—Geography The structure of ʿIrāḳ paradoxically derives its originality from the fact that it forms part of a large geographical block of territory. From the Arabo-Syrian desert tableland which it faces along its south-western flank, it takes its general aspect and its climate. All along its frontiers on the North-East, on the other hand, it shares the orientation and ¶ relief of the folded mountain-chains of western Asia, which give it its t…

II. 1. In the Arab world. (c) The period 1500 to 1800. i. The Ottoman occupation of the central Arab lands The Ottoman Empire, in a few decisive battles, destroyed the Mamlūk Sultanate (1250-1517 [see mamlūks ]), which included Egypt, Syria and parts of Anatolia (with the Ḥid̲j̲āz within its sphere of influence). Egypt, the centre of empires for centuries, and ¶ also Syria became tax-paying Ottoman provinces for the next three, nominally four, centuries. Later in the 16th century, the Yemen, ʿIrāḳ and North Africa (with the exception of Morocco) were also…

(Damietta), a town of Lower Egypt situated on the eastern arm of the Nile, near its mouth. Dimyāṭ, which was an important town before the Muslim conquest, was captured by a force under al-Miḳdād b. al-Aswad, sent by ʿAmr b. ¶ al-ʿĀṣ. As a Muslim town, it suffered repeated naval raids, at first from the Byzantines and subsequently from the Crusaders. After an attack in D̲h̲u ’l-Ḥid̲j̲d̲j̲a 238/June 853, al-Mutawakkil ordered the construction of a fortress at Dimyāṭ as part of a general plan to fortify the Mediterr…

( awlād al-kanz ), a clan descended from Rabīʿa tribesmen who migrated to the region of Aswān in the 3rd/9th century, intermarried with Bed̲j̲a [ q.v.], and ultimately gained control of the gold-mines of al-ʿAllāḳī [ q.v.]. The eponym of the clan, whose personal name was Abu ʾl-Makārim Hibat Allāh, received in 397/1007 from the Fāṭimid caliph al-Ḥākim [ q.v.] the honorific of Kanz al-Dawla for his services in capturing the rebel Abū Rakwa. The title continued to be borne by his successors. As marcher-chiefs of the frontier of Islam ¶ with the Bed̲j̲a and Nubians, the Banu ʾl-Kanz wer…

[English edition] العراق دولة ذات سيادة، دينها الإسلام. يتكلّم أغلب سكّانها العربيّة، وتقع في أقصى الشّرق من الهلال الخصيب. 1. الجغرافيا من المفارقة أن يستمدّ العراق تميّزه في تركيبته الجغرافيّة من كونه يشكّل جزءًا من كتلة جغرافيّة واسعة. فهو يستمدّ، من ناحية أولى، خصائصه الجغرافيّة العامّة ومناخه من هضبة بادية الشّام (الصّحراء العربيّة السّوريّة) التي يقع على طول سفحها الجنوبيّ الغربيّ، ومن جهة أخرى يشترك في الاتّجاه والتّضاريس مع سلاسل الجبال المنفرجة في آسيا الغربية التي تتقاسم، على طول تخومها الشّماليّة الشّرقيّ…

[English edition] في العالم العربي 1. (ج) الفترة من 1500 إلى 1800 1.1 الاحتلال العثماني للأراضي العربية المركزية بعد عدد قليل من المعارك الحاسمة، دمّرت الإمبراطورية العثمانية سلطنة المماليك (1250–1517) [انظر مماليك] التي كانت تشمل مصر وسوريا وأجزاء من الأناضول (مع الحجاز ضمن دائرة نفوذها). وأصبحت مصر، بعد أن كانت مركزاً للإمبراطوريات لعدّة قرون، وكذلك سوريا، من جملة الولايات العثمانية المطالبة بدفع الضرائب ما يزيد على ثلاثة قرون أو أربعة. وفي القرن السادس عشر، تمّ دمج اليمن والعراق وبلدان إفريقيا الشمالية (باستثناء المغرب) في الإمبراطورية العثمانية إدماجًا مركزيّا متفاوت الدرجات. وبا…

[English edition] 1. تاريخ مؤسّسة الخلافة لم ترق دراسة الخلافة منذ تأسيسها والتطوّرات اللّاحقة التي مرّت بها إلى درجة الشموليّة إلى يومنا هذا. والسبب الرئيس هو أنهّا تبدو غير ممكنة بمعزل عن الدّراسات التاريخيّة للحكومات المختلفة. وهذا ما لم يتحقّق إذ الدراسات ليست مستوفاة دائماً أو هي غير موجودة تماما. وفي المقابل نجد دراسات عن مختلف العقائد أكثر تطوّرا مع أنّ قيمتها العلميّة اختلفت باختلاف الفترات التاريخيّة. فكانت النتيجة أنّ ما أمكن تحقيقه من محاولات سابقة، ينقصه التعمّق أو هو ذو آفاق تاريخيّة محدودة. وهو ما يضطرّ…

[English edition] دراسة لسلطنة المماليك، أي نظام الحكم الذي أرساه مماليك معتقون، وحافظوا عليه (انظر المقالة السابقة) في مصر من سنة 648 هـ/1250 م إلى سنة 922 هـ/1517 م، وفي سوريّة من سنة 658هـ/1260 م إلى سنة 922هـ/1516 م، والدور الذي قام به خلفاؤهم، المماليك الجدد، في مصر العثمانيّة وفحص لـ: أولاً التّاريخ السياسي وثانيا التّاريخ المؤسّساتي. أمّا في خصوص التّاريخ العسكري فانظر الفصول المتعلقة بهذا الموضوع بقلم د. أيالون (D. Ayalon) في مقالات: «بحرية» و«بارود» و«حرب» و«حصار»، وفي خصوص البيروقراطية، انظر مقال «ديوان»، ثانياً: مصر (هـ.ل. غوتستشولك). (H.L.Gottschalk) 1. أولاً: الت…