Search

(the Crimea), a p eninsula on the northern shore of the Black Sea. The name (of uncertain origin) was at first given in the xiiith century to the town of Solg̲h̲at or Solk̲h̲ad, now called Stari̊y Ḳri̊m (“Old Ḳri̊m”), then the residence of the Mongol governor, in the interior of the country south-west of Kafa [q. v.] and north-east of Sudak. Towards the end of the xivth or beginning of the xvth century, the old name was driven out by the new one as is shown by the words of al-Ḳalḳas̲h̲andī ( madīnat Ṣolg̲h̲āt — wa-ḳad g̲h̲alaba ʿalaihā ismu ’l-Ḳirim, quoted by Tiesenhausen, Sbornik materialov, ot…

, a Turkish word meaning “a drink of soured mare’s milk”, which has passed in this form into Russian and western European languages; it is explained in Radloff’s Versuch eines Wörterbuches der Türk-Dialecte, vol. ii., St. Petersburg 1899, p. 853 under ki̊mi̊s. The word is found as early as the Kudatku-bilik where it is mentioned in the first place among the products of cattle-breeding (kumi̊s, milk, hair, fat, curds and cheese [W. Radloff, Das Kudatku-Bilik, Pl,. ii, St. Petersburg 1910, p. 379]). Wherever’the Turkish horsemen went they carried kumi̊s with them. According to Kutubī, ʿUyū…

b. Nūḥ, Abū Ibrāhīm al-Muntaṣir, a Sāmānid, after the fall of his dynasty in 389 (999) was carried a prisoner to Ūzgend in Farg̲h̲āna; he succeeded in escaping from there in disguise and for several years contested the rule of Mā warāʾ al-Nahr with the Turkish conquerors. After his last defeat, he fled with only eight followers across the Oxus and was murdered in Rabīʿ I or Rabīʿ II 395 (16 Dec. 1004 — 12 Febr. 1005) by the leader of an Arab tribe at Merv. Cf. the collection of the original sources in W. Barthold, Turkestan v epok̲h̲u mongol’skago nas̲h̲estviya, ii. 282 sq. (W. Barthold)

, on Russian maps Gissar, a district in Buk̲h̲ārā. The capital of the same name lies in a fertile and well tilled, but damp and unhealthy area on the bank of the Ḵh̲ānaka which flows into the Kāfirnihān; not far from Ḥiṣār the Kāfirnihān leaves the broad valley and enters a narrow ravine. Cf. the view of Ḥiṣār in Fr. v. Schwarz, Turkestan, p. 233. The site of the town approximately corresponds to that of the S̲h̲ūmān of the Arab geographers, cf. āmū-daryā (i. 340a). The name “Ḥiṣār-i S̲h̲ādmān” or simply “Ḥiṣār” is first found in the history of Tīmūr as the residence of one of …

, a people of uncertain origin; on their relation to the Bulg̲h̲ār and the rise of the Ḵh̲azar state see above, i. 786, where also the alliance between the Ḵh̲azar and the Byzantines in the war against Persia in 627 is dealt with. In spite of the successful issue of the war for the Byzantines it is not recorded that their empire was increased at the expense of Persia; but the Caucasian lands taken at this time by the Ḵh̲azars were not reconquered by the Persians and the Ḵh̲azars were only depriv…

or Bād̲h̲g̲h̲īs, a district in the north-western part of the modern Afg̲h̲ānistān; the name is explained as being derived from the Persian bādk̲h̲īz (“a place where wind rises”) on account of the strong winds prevailing there. By the geographers of the iv. (x.) century only the district in the north-west of Herat between this town and Sarak̲h̲s is called Bādg̲h̲īs. Later the name was extended to the whole country between the Herīrūd and the Murg̲h̲āb; at any rate it is used in this sense as early as the vii. (xiii.) …

(Turkish “black sand”), a desert in Russian Turkestān, between the Amū Daryā, the Ust Urt and the ranges of hills on the Caspian, contrasted with Ḳi̊zi̊l-Ḳum (“red sand”), ¶ the desert between the Sir Daryā and the Amū Daryā. The Ḳarāḳum (area 148,000 sq. miles) is a still more dreary waste and possesses even fewer fertile areas than the Ḳi̊zi̊l-ḳum. The sandy stretches north of the Sir as far as Lake Čalkar are called “little Ḳarāḳum”; cf. Franz Mahatschek, Landeskunde von Russisch-Turkestān, Stuttgart 1921, p. 15 sq., 285 and Index. The Ḳarāḳum mentioned by Ḏj̲uwamī in the Taʾrīk̲h̲-i Ḏj̲…

, the modern name of the ancient Āmul [q. v. p. 343] on the Oxus. The town appears to have received its present name in the time of the Tīmūrids; in his account of the events of the year 903 = 1477-1478, Bābur ( Bābar-Nāma, ed. Beveridge, f. 58) mentions the passage of the river at Čārd̲j̲ū ( Čārd̲j̲ū güzari). In the year 910 (1504) the fortress of Čārd̲j̲ū (in the S̲h̲aibānī-Nāma of Muḥammad Ṣāliḥ ed. Melioranski, p. 197: Čārd̲j̲ū ḳalʿasī, in the Persian S̲h̲aibānī-Nāma of Banāʾī, quoted by Samoilovič: Zapiski vost. old. ark̲h̲. obs̲h̲č., xix. 0173: Ḳalʿa-i Čahārd̲j̲ūi) had to surrender to …

b. Ḏj̲ūčī (in most Egyptian authorities wrongly called Berke b. Bātū), a Mongol prince, chief of the Golden Horde, grandson of Čingiz-Ḵh̲ān and third son of Ḏj̲ūčī. From the accounts of the Egyptian ambassadors, who were received by him during the last years of his life, he cannot have been more than a few years younger ¶ than Bātū. Little is known of his career before he ascended the throne. He took no part in the wars in Russia and Western Europe in the years 1234—1242; he was more frequently in Mongolia than Bātū and took part in the great parliam…

, chief town of the district Farg̲h̲āna in Russian Turkestān, important commercial town with 49 612 inhabitants (1900). Under the name of Andukān it is mentioned as early as the iv. (x.) century; it is said to have been re-built towards the end of the vii (xiii) century by the Mongol rulers Duwā and Kaidū; under the Timurids and later it was the residence of the princes or governors of Farg̲h̲āna; in Eastern Turkestān all inhabitants of Farg̲h̲āna are still called Andid̲j̲ānī. All buildings of t…

, name of the well-known Iranian tribe of the Alans, is generally regarded in Arabic manuscripts as a foreign word with the Arabic article (al-Lān) as many other proper names (cf. al-Rān for Arrān etc.); sometimes it is written al-ʿAlān (in Yāḳūt; also in Abu ’l-Fidāʾ, Taḳwīm al-buldān, ed. Reinaud and Mac Guckin de Slane, p. 203). By the Muḥammedan period all knowledge of the original domicile of the people and its immigration from Central Asia had been lost; the Arab geographers only know the territory of the Allān on the north slope of th…

, the title of the heir-apparent among the Tatars of the Crimea from the time of Menglī Girāy (last rule 883—921 = 1478—1515). The origin of the title is unknown; in manuscripts the same word is also written ḳāg̲h̲ilg̲h̲āy, which has caused W. Smirnow ( Kri̊mskoje Chanstvo pod verchovenstvom Ottomanskoi Porti̊ do načala XVIII vjeka, St. Petersburg 1887, p. 350 sq.) to suggest that we have here to deal with a non-Turkish (probably a Mongol) word. We have perhaps to connect with ḳalg̲h̲a the Central Asian word ḳalk̲h̲ān, a name frequently given to the prince of Balk̲h̲ (Balk̲h̲ appe…

(“Black-caps”, so called from their head-dress of black lamb-skin), a Turkish people formerly living on the river Borčala or Debeda in the eastern part of the gouvernement of Tiflis, who migrated about 1828 partly to Turkish territory (to the vicinity of Kars) and partly to Persian territory (district of Sulduz, south of Lake Urmia). In the district of Kars they form about 15% of the population; about 1883 they numbered 21,652 of whom 11,721 were Sunnīs and 9,931 S̲h̲īʿīs (K. Sadovskiy, Kratkaya zamaietka o Karskoi oblasti in the Sbor. Mater. etc. Kavkaza, iii. 315—350); about 1893, 2…

, a country to the south of China. Yāḳūt gives the forms Tubbat, Tubbit, and Tabbut, ¶ preferring the first of them. The oldest Arab notices of Tibet and the Tibetan kingdom are probably of Turkish origin. The ruler of Tibet is called Ḵh̲āḳān; the names Tüpüt and Tüpüt-Ḳag̲h̲an are found as early as the Ork̲h̲on inscriptions. A fancied resemblance of Tubbat to T̲h̲ābit and Tubbaʿ has given rise to stories of the Yaman origin of the Tibetan kingdom; cf. e.g. al-Ṭabarī, i. 686 supra; Gardīzī in Barthold, Otčet o poiezdke v Srednyuyu Aziyu, p. 87 sqq. There is much more that is legendary in t…

, the founder of an independent Tatar kingdom in the Crimea. Of his origin we only know that his grandfather Tās̲h̲-Timūr, a prince of the Golden Horde, ruled in the Crimea for a short period (his coins are dated 797 = 1394-1395) towards the end of the viiith = xivth century. According to native tradition Tāsh-Timūr had entrusted the education of his son G̲h̲iyāt̲h̲ al-Dīn to a member of the tribe of Girāi, Dawlat-Geldī Dawlat-Geldī afterwards went on a pilgrimage to Mecca; on his return a son was born to his former pupil, and therefore receiv…

, the Arabic name for the Og̲h̲uz branch of the Turkish people. This seems to have been the name of the great people who united all the tribes from China to the Black Sea into one nomad empire in the vith century a. d.; in the Ork̲h̲on inscriptions of the viiith century they are also called Toḳuz-Og̲h̲uz (“the nine Og̲h̲uz”) so that they were divided into nine tribes. On the linguistic and ethnological relationship of the Og̲h̲uz to other Turkish peoples opinions differ; Ramstedt’s attempt (in Sbornik v čest semidiesyalilietiya G. N. Potanina, Zapiski Imp. Russk. Geogr. Obs̲h̲č. po otdielieni…

b. Nūḥ, the name of two Sāmānides. 1. ʿAbd al-Malik (Abu’l-Fawāris) b. Nūḥ I, prince of Ḵh̲orāsān and Transoxania (343—350 = 954—961), successor to his father Nūḥ b. Naṣr. According to a more recent authority (Aḥmed al-Ḳubāwī, Nars̲h̲ak̲h̲ī, ed. Schefer, p. 95,1. 19), he was only 10 years old on his accession. The war commenced by Nūḥ. against the Būyides was put ¶ an end to in his reign by a peace which was disadvantageous to the Sāmānides (344 = 955-956); as the coins prove, this peace was conditional on the recognition of the caliph al-Muṭīʿ. Little is …

, Russian administrative province and its capital, properly Ḥâd̲j̲d̲j̲ī Task̲h̲ān; founded by the Mongols in the neighbourhood of the Ḵh̲azar town of Itil [q. v.]. The town is mentioned by European and Muḥammadan travellers as early as the first half of the viii. (xiv.) cent.; according to Ibn Baṭūṭa a sainted Mekkan pilgrim dwelt there, and so the place was exempted from all taxation; hence the name. Coins appear to have been minted in Astrak̲h̲an only from the year 782 (1380). Demolished by Ti…

, name of three Ḵh̲āns of the Crimea. G̲h̲āzi Girāy I. reigned only about six months in the year 929 = 1523. G̲h̲āzī Girāy II. twenty years (996—1016 = 1588—1607-1608), G̲h̲āzī Giray III. three years (1116—1119 = 1704— 1707). Only the reign of the G̲h̲āzī Girāy II. is of importance; he was known as Bora = storm from his impetuous bravery and was the son of Dewlet Giray I. and reigned after his brothers Muḥammad Girāy and Islām Girāy. Before his accession he had taken part with the Turkish army in the campaigns against Persia and spent seven years a…

(Turkish Altai-kis̲h̲i), is the name of a Turkish tribe in the Altai, also called “Mountain-kalmucks” by the Russians; the latter name evidently dates from the time of the Kalmuck dominion, as also does the princely title Zaisan (the whole people is divided into nine Zaisanships). The dialect of the Altai is described by Radloff as a uniform Turkish dialect of very primitive character. The Altai have been far removed from Islam and its civilization; yet many words in their language ( Kudai, God; S̲h̲aiṭan, the Devil) shew the influence of this civilization, ¶ though perhaps the influen…

, usually written Bīs̲h̲bāliḳ, or Bīs̲h̲bālig̲h̲, (Turkī “Five Towns”, Pentapolis); Chinese Pei Tʾing (North Town), a town in the modern Chinese Turkestan, north of the ¶ Celestial Mountains (Tʾien-s̲h̲ān). The site of this town, often mentioned from the viiith (in the Ork̲h̲on inscriptions) to the xvth century, has only recently been satisfactorily located. Since the days of Klaproth and Abel Remusat, Sinologists and geographers have sought for Pei-Tʿing and Bis̲h̲baliḳ at the modern Urumči. Grum-Gržimailo ( Opisanie putes̲h̲estviya v Zapadnij, Kitai, i. 221 et seq.) was the f…

, a Persian geographer and historian. His proper name was S̲h̲ihāb al-Dīn ʿAbd Allāh b. Luṭf Allāh b. ʿAbd al-Ras̲h̲īd al-Ḵh̲wāfi (not Nūr al-Dīn Luṭf Allāh b. ʿAbd Allāh al-Harawī, as is stated in European catalogues following an erroneous statement of ʿAbd al-Razzāḳ Samarḳandī). According to ʿAbd al-Razzāḳ, he was born in Herāt and educated in Hamadān. From his own works we only learn that he was considered an expert chess player, was at Tīmūr’s court and was on terms of personal intimacy with…

is a region of Russian Turkistān. Under the name Ākhāl (which only appears in modern times) are gathered together the oases on the Northern slope of the mountain-ranges Kopet-Dag̲h̲ and Küren-Dag̲h̲, between the present railway-stations Ḳizil-Arwat and Gjaurs. The second part of the name is taken from the ¶ present inhabitants of this region, the Tekke, a tribe of Turkomans. Abu’l-G̲h̲āzī already mentions the Tekke in the 10th (16th) century as inhabitants of the region between the Balk̲h̲ān mountains and the town of Darūn (near the present railway-station Bahar…

The Arabie word for “Slav”, Ṣaḳlab, more rarely Ṣaḳlāb (also Saḳlāb) or Ṣiḳlāb, pl. Ṣaḳāliba is probably taken from the Greek (Σκλαβηνοί, Σκλάβοι). Slav mercenaries had been settled in the eastern frontier provinces of the Byzantine empire in the seventh century a. d., so that the Arabs must have made the acquaintance of the Slavs in their very earliest battles with the Byzantines. During his campaign against Constantinople (715—717) Maslama is said to have taken a “town of the Slavs” ( madīnat al-Ṣaḳāliba) immediately after crossing the Byzantine border ( Fragm. hist. Arab., ed. de Go…

Russ. Ferganskaya oblast, a territory in Russian Turkestan, in the valley of the Sir-Daryā. The name strictly is only applicable to the valley itself, bounded in the north by the Čotkal range, in the east by the mountains of Farg̲h̲āna, in the south by the Alai range; in the west the boundary is less sharply defined by the approach of the mountain chains to the river bank, which causes the river to alter its course, which in Farg̲h̲āna is predominantly southwesterly, first to a western then to a northwestern ¶ direction. Between the mountains and the stream there is here, particular…

, a river in Russian Turkestan, rising in the Terskei-Alatau mountains and called Ḳočḳar on the upper part of its course, approaches within 4 miles of the west end of the Issiḳ-Kul and sends out a branch, the Kutemaldi, to this lake; the river itself rushes through the Buam (Būg̲h̲ām) ravine, receives the waters of the Great and Little Kebin on its right bank and on its left the Aḳsu and Kuragati with their tributaries and after a course of about 650 miles falls into the small lake of Saumul-Kul…

, a dynasty in Ḵh̲orāsān, founded by Ṭāhir b. al-Ḥusain [q. v.]. The foundation of the rule of the Ṭāhirids was later considered to date from the appointment of Ṭāhir as commander of the army of the Caliph Maʾmūn in 194 (810) and therefore the duration of their rule was put at 65 years (till the deposition of Muḥammad b. Ṭāhir in 259 [873]; cf. the biography of Faḍl b. Śahl [q.v.] in Ibn Ḵh̲allikān N°. 540, ed. de Slane. p. 577; transl., ii. 473 [where we have wrongly ¶ “six and fifty”]). Ṭāhir was succeeded in Ḵh̲orāsān by his son Ṭalḥa, d. 213 (828); after him reigned ʿAbd Allāh’b…

, frequently written Činkkīz-Ḵh̲ān, Mongol conqueror and founder of the Mongol world-empire, was born in 1155 a.d. (according to the Turco-Mongol animal cycle in the year of the pig, 549-550 a. h.), on the right bank of the Onon in the district of Dülün-Boldaḳ (now in Russian territory, about 115° E. of Greenwich). He is said to have received his original name of Temūčīn from the name of a prince who was conquered by his father Yisūkāi-Bahādur about the time of his birth. What else is related of his ancestors and his early yo…

, the name of three Ḵh̲āns of the Crimea. 1. Islām Girāy I b. Muḥammad Girāy, brother of G̲h̲āzī Girāy I (q. v., ii. 151a). During the troubled period that followed the death of his father, he succeeded, as his brothers had done before him, in occupying the throne for a short time (a few years till 939 = 1523), but he was not recognised by the Sulṭān. After the appointment of his uncle Ṣāḥib Girāy, he rebelled against the Sulṭān and was murdered in 944 (1537). 2. Islām Girāy II b. Dewlet Girāy, brother and predecessor of G̲h̲āzī Girāy II (q. v., ii. 151a), 992—996 = 1584—1588. In contrast to his s…

, a Cossack village and the capital of a district in the territory of Semipalatinsk, 49° 2′N. Lat., 76° 7′E. Long. (Green w.); it has about 3000 inhabitants of whom two-thirds arc Muḥammadans. (W. Barthold)

, Arabic transcription of the Turkish regal title Ḳag̲h̲an. We find this title already borne by the rulers of the earliest people who called themselves “Turk” (vith cent, a.d.) and it had been taken by them from their predecessors, the “genuine Awars” or the Žoan-Žoan of the Chinese (Kiessling in Pauly-Wissowa, Realenzyklopädie, viii. 2587, s. v. hunni; also among the so-called Pseudo-Awars, cf. e. g. Fragm. Hist. Graec, iv. 233). In one of the oldest inscriptions, that of Tonyukuk (W. Radloff, Die alttürkischen Inschriften der Mongolei, 2nd Series, St. Petersburg 1899), we find Ḳan alo…

, founder of the Ṭāhirid dynasty [q. v.] in Ḵh̲orāsān [q. v.], born in 159 (775—776), died in Ḏj̲umādā I (Ṭabarī, iii. 1065, 13) or Ḏj̲umādā II (Ibn Ḵh̲allikān) 207 (822). Ṭāhir belonged to a family of Persian descent and also to the Arab tribe of Ḵh̲uzāʿa [q. v.]. His ancestor Razīḳ was a client of the governor of Sīstān, Abū Muḥammad Ṭalḥa b. ʿAbd Allāh al-Ḵh̲uzāʿī; Razīḳ’s son Muṣʿab took part in the fighting against the Umaiyads under Abū Muslim as secretary ( kātib) to the general Sulaimān b. Kat̲h̲īr al-Ḵh̲uzāʿī. The town of Būshand̲j̲ [q.v.] in the district of Herāt [q. …

(or Ḳarā Ḵh̲iṭāi), the usual name since the vith (xiith) century in Muḥammadan sources for the Kitai people, mentioned by the Chinese from the eighth century a. d. onwards, who were probably Tunguz (according to another view Mongol). In the Turkish Ork̲h̲on inscriptions the Kitai are several times mentioned as enemies of the Turks in the extreme east of the area visited by the Turks in their campaigns; according to Chinese sources, they lived in the southern part of Manchuria. From the beginning of the tenth century the K…

, a Turkish word, of the later cultured period, the origin and original meaning of which have not yet been definitely ascertained. Čelebi is probably to be derived from čalab (also written čalāb) “God”; the latter word is at the present day pronounced čalap in Asia Minor and, according to an article by K. Foy ( Mitteil. des Or. Seminars, W estas. Stud., ii, 124), is the only word for “God” among the Yürüks of Asia Minor. In the written ¶ language čalab first appears in the viiith (xivth) century among the Turkī poets of Asia Minor; that, as is sometimes (by K. Foy also, loc. cit.) stated, it is “not…

, a Turkish tribe; the Turkish name was probably Ḳalač (see below). As early as the fourth (tenth) century we find the Ḵh̲alad̲j̲ living much farther south than the other Turks, in the southern part of the modern Afg̲h̲ānistān between Seistān and India. They are said even then to have come thither “in ancient times” ( fī ḳadīm al-aiyām) (al-Iṣṭak̲h̲rī, ed. de Goeje, Bibl. Geogr. Arab., i. 254). The word is variously vocalised in Arabic manuscripts, e. g. al-Ḵh̲ald̲j̲ in al-Iṣṭak̲h̲rī, p. 281 infra; Ḵh̲ald̲j̲ also in M. Longworth Dames (see the art. afg̲h̲ānistān, J. Marquart ( Ērānšahr, Ber…

, the name of another prince, of the Aḳ-Ḳoyunlū dynasty in Persia, son and successor of Sulṭān Yaʿḳūb; he only reigned for a short period from 896-7/1490-2 and was overthrown by his cousin Rustam. (W. Barthold)

, a town in Chinese Turkestān (Sin Kiang); the same name is still used in Chinese official documents. The name Kās̲h̲g̲h̲ar first appears in Chinese transcription (Kʾiu-cha) in the Tʾang-s̲h̲u ; cf. E. Chavannes, Documents sur les Tou-Kiue ( Turcs ) occidentaux , St. Petersburg 1903, 121 f. On the pre-Islamic Kās̲h̲g̲h̲ar and the ruins of Buddhist buildings in the vicinity, see A. Stein, Ancient Khotan , Oxford 1907, i, 52 f.; idem, Serindia , Oxford 1921, 80 f. Arab armies did not reach Kās̲h̲g̲h̲ar; the story of Ḳutayba’s campaign in 96/715 is, as shown by H. A. R. Gibb in BSOS, ii (1923), 46…

(in Arabic usually taken as al-lān ), an Iranian people (Alān < Aryan) of Northern Caucasus, formerly attested also east of the Caspian sea (see al-Bīrūnī, Taḥdīd al-Amākin , ed. A. Z. Validi, in Bīrūnī’s Picture of the world, 57), as supported by local toponymy. The Alān are mentioned in history from the 1st century A.D. In 371 they were defeated by the Huns. Together with the Vandals, a part of the Alāns migrated to the West across France and Spain, and finally took part in the creation of the Vandal kingdom in North Africa (418-5…

, a nomadic people in the South Russian steppes who flourished in the early Islamic period. The K̲h̲azar tribal union emerged in the course of the 6th century A.D. in the aftermath of a series of migrations of nomadic peoples from Inner and Central Asia. With the collapse of the European Hun state in 454 A.D., some of the nomadic elements of Attila’s horde withdrew to the Pontic steppe zone. They were joined here, ca. 463 A.D., by waves of Og̲h̲ur tribes which had been driven from Western Siberia and the Kazak̲h̲ steppe by the Sabirs who, in turn, had been forced to m…

, capital of a Muslim kingdom in the upper Ili [ q.v.] valley, founded in the 7th/13th century by Ūzār (Ḏj̲uwaynī, i, 57) or Būzār (Ḏj̲amāl Ḳars̲h̲ī, in W. Barthold, Turkestan , Russ. ed., i, 135 f.), who is said to have previously been a brigand and horse-thief. According to Ḏj̲amāl, he assumed the title of Tog̲h̲ri̊l Ḵh̲ān as ruler. Almali̊g̲h̲ is first mentioned as the capital of this kingdom, and later as a great and wealthy commercial city. We owe our information about its site mainly to the Chinese (Bretschneider, Med . Researches , i, 69 f., ii, 33 ff. and in…

, conventional form Syr Darya, a river of Central Asia and the largest in that region. The Turkish element in the name, si̊r , is not actually found before the 10th/16th century; in the following century, the K̲h̲īwan ruler and historian Abu ’l-G̲h̲āzī Bahādur K̲h̲ān [ q.v.] calls the Aral Sea “the Sea of Sir” (Si̊r Teñizi). 1. In the early and mediaeval periods. The Si̊r Daryā flows through the present republics of Kirgizia, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Kazakhstan down from the northwestern slopes of the Tien Shan Mountains to the Aral Sea [ q.v.]. It is formed by the confluence in the e…

, Persian historian, author of the well-known Maṭlaʿ-i Saʿdayn wa-Mad̲j̲maʿ-i Baḥrayn , born in Harāt S̲h̲aʿbān 816/Nov. 1413, died there Ḏj̲umādā II 887/July-August 1482. His father was imām and ḳāḍī of the camp ( ḥaḍrat ) of S̲h̲āhruk̲h̲ and read out books and expounded various problems ( masāʾil ) to him ( Maṭlaʿ , ii, 704, 870, cf. 706). He received the usual type of education, and one of his teachers was his elder brother ʿAbd al-Ḳahhār. He also attended when his father read the two Ṣaḥīḥs to S̲h̲ams al-Dīn Muḥ. al-Ḏj̲azarī (d. 833/1429) (ibid., ii, 631-1294) and received an id̲j̲āza …

Ḥusaynī rāzī , Persian historian, b. ca. 993/1585, date of death unknown; author of a large history of the world, which in the manuscripts is sometimes called “Mad̲j̲maʿ” and sometimes “Zubdat al-tawārīk̲h̲” , and is generally known as “Taʾrīk̲h̲-i Ḥaydarī” . The work is arranged according to geographical divisions in five bāb s: 1. the Arab world; 2. Persia; 3. Central Asia and the Far East; 4. the West; 5. India, each of which is arranged chronologically. They deal with political history and frequently reach into the time …

, also known as fūs̲h̲and̲j̲ , in Middle Persian probably Pūs̲h̲ang, ancient Iranian town to the south of the river Harīrūd, and 10 parasangs (= one day’s journey) W-S-W. of Harāt (Yāḳūt, i, 758) which lies north of the river. The town already existed in pre-Islamic times, and, according to legend, was founded either (considering its name) by the hero Pas̲h̲ang (the son, though in the epos the father, of Afrāsiyāb), or else by the Sāsānid ruler S̲h̲āpūr I (242-271) (J. Marquart, Erāns̲h̲ahr , 49). In the year 588, the town is mentioned as the seat of a Nestorian bishop ( ibid., 64; it is, howev…

, Turkestan , a Persian term meaning “land of the Turks”. 1. As a designation for the Central Asian lands to the north of modern Persia and Afg̲h̲ānistān. This roughly corresponded to the older Transoxania or Mā warāʾ al-nahr [ q.v.] and the steppe lands to its north, although these last were from Mongol times onwards (sc. the 13th century) often distinguished as Mog̲h̲olistān [ q.v.]. To the Persians, of course, only the southern frontier of the land of the Turks, the frontier against Īrān, was of importance and this frontier naturally depended on political conditions. On ¶ their very firs…

, Tibbat , Tibat , the most frequent vocalisations in the medieval Islamic sources for the consonant ductus T.b.t denoting the Inner Asian land of Tibet (with Tubbat , e.g. in Yāḳūt, Buldān , ed. Beirut, ii, 10, also preferred by Minorsky in his Ḥudūd al-ʿālam , tr. 92-3, and his edition and tr. of Marwazī, see below). The origin of the name has recently been examined by L. Bazin and J. Hamilton in a very detailed and erudite study, L’origine du nom Tibet , in Wiener Studien zur Tibetologie und Buddhismuskunde , xxvi [1991], 244-62, repr. in Bazin, Les Turcs , des mots, des hommes, Paris 1994. They…

, Mongol Great K̲h̲ān (1260-94), the brother and successor of Möngke [ q.v.], was born in 1215. In 1251 Möngke entrusted him with the administration of Northern China, and he took part in the subsequent war which his brother launched against the Sung rulers of the South. The conquest of the Sung was finally completed only during his own reign (1279), when the whole of China was again united under one ruler for the first time since the tenth century. Already in 1260 he had transferred the capital of the Empire from Ḳaraḳorum [ q.v.] to Peking, in Mongol K̲h̲ān-Bali̊g̲h̲ [ q.v.], i.e. “K̲h̲ān’s T…

, founder of the Čag̲h̲atay Ḵh̲anate [ q.v.], the second son of Čingiz-Ḵh̲ān and his chief wife Börte Fud̲j̲in. Already in his father’s lifetime he was regarded as the greatest authority on the Yasa (the tribal laws of the Mongols as codified by Čingiz-Ḵh̲ān). Like his brothers he took part in his father’s campaigns against China (1211-1216) and against the kingdom of the Ḵh̲wārizm-S̲h̲āh (1219-1224). Urgānd̲j̲, the latter’s capital, was besieged by the three princes Ḏj̲oči, Čag̲h̲atay and Ögedey and taken in Ṣafar 618/27th March-24th April 1221. In the sam…

(Turkic “black hat”), a Turkic people of Central Asia. In the Russian annals, a people of this name (Černiye Klobutsi) is mentioned as early as the 12th century A.D.; but whether these “black hats” are identical with the modern Ḳaraḳalpaḳ cannot be definitely ascertained. It is not until the end of the 11th/17th century that there are records of the Ḳaraḳalpaḳ, in Central Asia. According to the embassy report of Skibin and Tros̲h̲in (1694), they then lived on the Si̊r Daryā, 10 days’ journey bel…

, second son of Sulṭān Maḥmūd of Samarḳand, grandson of Sulṭān Abū Saʿīd [ q.v.], born in the year 882/1477-8, killed on 10 Muḥarram 905/17 Aug. 1493. In the lifetime of his father he was prince of Buk̲h̲ārā; on the death of the latter in Rabīʿ II 900/30 Dec. 1494/27 Jan. 1495, he was summoned to Samarḳand. In 901/1495-6, he was deposed for a brief period by his brother Sulṭān ʿAlī and in 903, towards the end of Rabīʿ I November 1497, finally overthrown by his cousin Bābur. Bāysong̲h̲or then betook himself to…