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The Latin word catena, “chain,” designates a form of Bible commentary that lists extracts from older commentaries for each verse. The catena first developed in the sixth century and became very common in Byzantium. Its purpose was to give a handy summary of biblical tradition. Much of the Greek exposition of the early church has come down to us only in catenas. The catena is related to the florilegium, which assembled quotations from the Fathers on dogmatic topics. In the Middle Ages the Latin chur…

1. Term In church history the idea of the early church has theological as well as historical significance. A theological evaluation sees in it the true church, whose teaching and forms have an authoritative ¶ character. Agreement with it guaranteed not only one’s own orthodoxy but also the catholicity of one’s church. Since the church did not remain unchanged through the centuries, the question of the limits of the early church as the true church unavoidably arises. The Roman Catholic Church is least disturbed by such questions, …

The early Christian writers who defended the Christian faith became known as apologists. The first apologies were legal defenses directed to the Roman emperors in the second century. Many of the names of the authors are known, and we have full copies of the apology addressed by Aristides to Hadrian (117–38) and of that of Justin Martyr to Antoninus Pius (138–61). The plea of Athenagoras to Marcus Aurelius (161–80) is similar. The literary form, which was influenced by the current persecutions, reached its height in the North African Tertullian (ca. 160-ca. 225). It then faded out, …

The lapsi were apostates from the Christian faith during the persecution under Decius (249–51). An edict of the emperor in February 250 ordered the whole population to show loyalty to the gods of the Roman Empire by an act of sacrifice (Roman Religion). Local commissions supervised the execution of the edict and gave a certificate (libellus) for compliance. A shocking number of Christians yielded. Since the edict applied only for a set time, however, many sought readmission to the church’s fellowship. As might be expected, the question of readmission g…

The term “Docetism” (from Gk. dokeō, “seem”) includes a variety of meanings throughout the history of dogma, covering heretical (Heresies and Schisms) claims and doctrines about Christ (Christology). At the root of all of them lies the denial of the truth and reality of the material, earthly, and corporal existence of Christ, with the concurrent assumption that he lived among humans only in appearance, our perception of him being no more than a delusion of the senses. The earliest reference to this concept is found in the letters of Ignatius of Antioch (d. ca. 107) to the churches o…

The designation “chapel” derives from the place that housed the royal Frankish relic, namely, half of the cape (Lat. cappella) of St. Martin of Tours (ca. 316–97). Although chapels conceived as sacred spaces in citadels and castles were actually part of the overall concept, independent cultic spaces, normally with an altar, were also called chapels (e.g., baptismal chapels, baptisteries, funerary chapels) and were constructed usually in the shape of a cross or as a central edifice. The initial architectonic result of the veneration involving alt…

1. Dogmatic Aspects Heresy is the opposite of pure doctrine (Orthodoxy). As schismatic deviation from the unity of faith, it belongs to the doctrine of the church. It presupposes (1) the idea of a pure doctrine that, at least in demarcation, formulates truth in doctrinal statements and thus defines the church’s unity. A verdict of heresy, however, also points to (2) criteria by which to distinguish redeeming faith in Jesus Christ from sinful falsification. Finally, to establish heresy there is need…

The imprecise phrase “lives of the saints” describes works in the genre of hagiography. Veneration of saints has always produced descriptions of their lives presupposed by stories about them. The forms of such lives range from popular narratives and legends to more stylized literary biographies. The aim of creating historically verifiable accounts is a purely academic ideal. Only the Roman Catholic Church has a legally defined concept of saints (through its canonization process), though the understanding of the Orthodox Church is very similar. Along with apocryphal acts of the…

[German Version] (Feb 17, 1848, Norka, Saratow, Russia – Jul 18, 1925, Göttingen) studied Protestant theology in Dorpat (1866–1870; Tartu), Göttingen (1874/75), and Bonn (1877/78), serving churches among the Germans in the Volga in the interim. In Dorpat Bonwetsch was lecturer (1878) and professor of historical theology (1883); he was then called to …

[German Version] I. Council of 431 – II. Council of 449 I. Council of 431 1. Occasion The imperial synod called by Emperor Theodosius II at Pentecost (Jun 7) 431 was already ¶ dissolved in October because an irreconcilable division into two synods had developed. This synod only become the third ecumenical council subsequently, although not in the Apostolic Church of the East. The synod's task was to clarify legal matters – perhaps a charge leveled by four Egyptian monks against Cyril of Alexandria? – and christological doctrine (Christology). 2. Background Nestorius, starting from A…

[German Version] (Nov 13, 354, Thagaste – Apr 28, 430, Hippo Regius) I. Life – II. Works – III. Influence I. Life 1. Youth. Augustine himself has supplied a wealth of information with a relative chronology (esp. in his Confessiones, Retractationes, and Epistulae); the biography of his younger friend Possidius is also important. Augustine was born in the city of Thagaste in Roman North Africa (Souk Ahras, Algeri…

[German Version] (Mar 28, 1915, Berlin – Apr 13, 1994, Münster). For his academic study (1933– 1938), for engagement in the life of the Confessing Church ( Bekennende Kirche), editing of the “ Junge Kirche”, and for entry to the world of scholarship, Berlin was the right place to be. From H. Lietzmann, Aland learned the ideal of scholarship, as is documented in his edition of Lietzmann's correspondence in 1979. He maintained this ideal in scholarly projects (e.g. TLZ, GCS, TU), resisting state control with imagination and integrity. After the N…

Overview Overview Christology is systematic reflection on the basis and significance of the apostolic witness to Jesus Christ, along with its expression and application throughout the history of the church. It has long been a classic part of theological teaching. It seeks to fashion explicit statements that can be tested and used in close connection with other central areas of Christian doctrine (e.g., Church; Anthropology; Justification; Hope; Ethics; Pastoral Theology). It begins, however, with implicit as well as explicit Christological statements. The…