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, also written Sifri Ḥiṣār , i.e. strong fortress (see Aḥmed Wefīḳ, Lehd̲j̲e-yi ʿOt̲h̲mānī , 459), the early Turkish and Ottoman name of two small towns in northwestern and western Anatolia respectively. 1. The more important one is the modern Turkish Sivrihisar, in the modern il or province of Eskişehir. It lies on the Eskişehir-Ankara road roughly equidistant from each, south of the course of the Porsuk river and north of the upper course of the Saḳarya [ q.v.] (lat. 39° 29′ N., long. 31° 32′ E., altitude 1,050 m/3,440 feet). …

, modern Turkish Muş, a town and a province of eastern Anatolia lying to the west of Lake Van and Ak̲h̲lāṭ [ q.v.] or K̲h̲ilāṭ (modern Ahlat). The town lies in lat. 38° 44′ N. and long. 41° 30′ E. at an altitude of 1290 m/4,200 feet in the foothills of the valley which carries the Murad Su river—a fertile plain on which wheat, tobacco and vines have long been grown—and which in recent years has borne the railway branch from Elâziğ [see maʿmūrat al-ʿazīz ] eastwards to Tatvan on the shores of Lake Van. In the pre-Islamic period, it was the principal town of the Armenian district of Taraun (Hübschmann, ¶ Id…

b. Āḳā K̲h̲ān , Persian anthologist and poet, who is also known by his penname Ād̲h̲ar which he adopted after having used the names Wālih and Nak̲h̲at previously. He was descended from a prominent Turcoman family belonging to the Begdīlī tribe of Syria (Begdīlī-i S̲h̲āmlū) which had joined the Ḳi̊zi̊lbās̲h̲ movement [ q.v.] in the 9th/15th century. Afterwards, the family settled down in Iṣfahān. Many of his relatives served the later Ṣafawids and Nādir S̲h̲āh as administrators and diplomats. Luṭf ʿAlī Beg was born on Saturday 20 Rabīʿ II 1134/7 F…

, the name of a Turkish dynasty, ultimately of Og̲h̲uz origin [see g̲h̲uzz ], whose name appears in European sources as ottomans (Eng.), ottomanes (Fr.), osmanen (Ger.), etc. I. political and dynastic history 1. General survey and chronology of the dynasty The Ottoman empire was the territorially most extensive and most enduring Islamic state since the break-up of the ʿAbbāsid caliphate and the greatest one to be founded by Turkish-speaking peoples. It arose in the Islamic world after the devastations over much of the eastern and central lands of the Dār al-Islām …

or ʿAlemdār , Ottoman Turkish grand vizier in 1808, was the son of a wealthy Janissary at Rusčuḳ, born about 1750. He distinguished himself in the war with Russia under Muṣṭafā III, and acquired in these years the surname of bayraḳdār “standard-bearer”. After the war he lived on his estates near Rusčuḳ, and acquired the semi-official position of aʿyān [ q.v.] of Hezārgrād and later of Rusčuḳ. With other aʿyans he took part in an action against the government at Edirne, but became finally a reliable supporter of the government. Having already received the honorary offices of ḳapi̊d̲j̲i̊ bas̲…

, modern Turkish Söğüt , a small town of northwestern Anatolia, in the classical Bithynia, now in the modern Turkish il or province of Bilecik [see biled̲j̲ik ] (lat. 40° 02′ N., long. 30° 10′ E., altitude 650 m/2,132 feet). In Ottoman times it came within the wilāyet of Ḵh̲udāwendigār or Bursa [ q.vv.]. It lies to the south of the Saḳarya river [ q.v.] between Lefke and Eskişehir, and is a day’s journey from each of these places ( Ḏj̲ihān-nümā ). Sögüd lies at the mouth of a mountain gorge, very deep and very narrow, and is built in an amphitheatre. Th…

, Sinope , modern Turkish Sin op, a town and seaport on the north coast of Asia Minor, in the classical Paphlagonia, between the mouths of the Saḳarya [ q.v.] and the Ḳi̊zi̊l I̊rmaḳ [ q.v.] and about equidistant from the ports of Ṣamsūn and Ineboli, 120 km/75 miles to the north-east of Ḳasṭamūnī [ q.v.] (lat. 42° 05′ N., long. 35° 09′ E.). It’is the celebrated Σινώπη of the ancients and has retained this name. Muslim authors know it by the name of Sanūb (Abu ’l-Fidāʾ, 392, and Ibn Faḍl Allāh al-ʿUmarī, Masālik al-abṣār , ed. Quatremère, in NE, xiii, 361), Ṣanūb (Ibn Baṭṭūṭa, ii, 348), Sināb (…

(t.), an ancient title in Turkish tribal organisation meaning “commander of the army, troops”. The first word was originally sü , with front vowel; no proof has as yet been adduced for ¶ the suggestion that the word was originally a loan from Chinese (see Sir Gerard Clauson, An etymological dict. of pre-thirteenth century Turkish, Oxford 1972, 781). Sü appears frequently in the Ork̲h̲on [ q.v.] inscriptions and probably in the Yenisei ones also. In the former, we find the phrase sü sülemek “to make a military expedition”, and the title sü bas̲h̲i̊ also occurs (see Talât Tekin, A grammar of Orkh…

, the word used in western Turkish (e.g. in Ottoman and Crimean Tatar cf. Radloff, Versuch eines Wörterbuches der Türk-Dialecte , ii, 1216) for village. It is the form in which Turkish has borrowed the Persian gūy (cf. Bittner, Der Einfluss des Arabischen und Persischen auf das Türkische , in SB Ak . Wien , cxlii, No. 3, 103), or perhaps more correctly kūy (Vullers, Lexicon; Burhān-i ḳāṭiʿ , 759) meaning originally path, street. In the toponomastic of the Ottoman empire we find many placenames compounded with köy , like Bog̲h̲az Köy, Ermeni Köy, etc. It seems …

, Mad̲j̲d al-Dīn Abu ’l-Ḥasan , a Persian poet of the second half of the 4th/10th century. In some later sources his kunya is given as Abū Isḥāḳ, but the form given above can be found already in an early source like the Čahār makāla . The Dumyat al-ḳaṣr by al-Bāk̲h̲arzī contains a reference to the “solitary ascetic” ( al-mud̲j̲tahid al-muḳīm bi-nafsihi ) Abu ’l-Ḥasan ʿAlī b. Muḥammad al-Kisāʾī of Marw who might very well be identical with this poet (cf. A. Ates, giriş to his edition of Kitāb Tarcumān al-balāġa , 97 f.). The pen name Kisāʾī would, according to ʿAw…

, Arabised form Marzubān , “warden of the march”, “markgrave”, from Av. marəza and M. Parth. mrz “frontier”, plus pat “protector”. The MP form marzpān suggests a north Iranian origin. It began to be used as the title of a military governor of a frontier province in the Sāsānid empire in the 4th or 5th centuries A.D. when marz , marzpan , and marzpanutʿin (marzpānate) appear as loan words in Armenian, and marzbanā as a loan word in Syriac. The NP form marzbān , marzvān or marzabān was Arabised as marzubān (pl. marāziba , marāzib ), possibly as early as the 6th century A.D. Arabic also formed a verb marz…

, the river Nile. The Nile is one of the large rivers (length ca. 6,648 km./4,132 miles) which from the beginning have belonged to the territory of Islam, and the valleys and deltas of which have favoured the development of an autonomous cultural centre in Islamic civilisation. In the case of the Nile, this centre has influenced at different times the cultural and political events in the Islamic world. Thus the Nile has, during the Islamic period, continued to play the same part as it did during the centuries that preceded the coming of Islam. The name al-Nīl or, very often, Nīl Miṣr, goe…

(824-48, 850-5/1421-44, 1446-51), sixth ruler of the Ottoman Empire, was born in 806 (1403-4) and ascended the throne in D̲j̲umādā I 824/May 1421, when he arrived in Edirne some days after his father Meḥemmed I’s death; his decease had been kept secret on the advice of the vizier ʿIwaḍ Pas̲h̲a until the new sultan’s arrival. As crown prince he had resided at Mag̲h̲nisa, and he had taken part in the suppression of the revolt of Simawna-Og̲h̲lu Bedr al-Dīn [ q.v.]. Immediately after his accession he had to face the pretender known in Turkish history as Düzme Muṣṭafā [ q.v.] and his ally D̲j̲un…

, a town in central Syria in the district of Orontes (Nahr al-ʿĀṣī), about 25 miles south-east of Ḥamāt and 35 miles north-east of Ḥimṣ (for the town’s exact situation, see Kiepert’s map in M. von Oppenheim, Vom Mittelmeer zum Persischen Golf , Berlin 1899, i. 124 ff., and ii, 401; National Geographic Atlas of the World , 5th ed., Washington D.C. 1981, 178-9). Salamiyya lies in a fertile plain 1,500 feet above sea level, south of the D̲j̲abal al-Aʿlā and on the margin of the Syrian steppe. The older and more correct pronunciation…

, the desert region that lies west of Kūfa along the alluvial plain of the Euphrates. It is higher than the low-lying ground by the river and forms the transition to the central Arabian plateau. According to the authorities quoted by Yāḳūt, Buldān , iii, 359, al-ṭaff means an area raised above the surrounding country or fringe, edge, bank; the name is not found after the 13th century. The district contains a number of springs, the waters of which run ¶ southwest (cf. Ibn al-Faḳīh, 187). The best known of these wells was al-ʿUd̲h̲ayr. From its geographical position al-Ṭaff w…

, Muḥammad (1823-87), Egyptian statesman in the reigns of the Khedives Ismāʿīl and Tawfīk. He was of Turkish origin and was born in Cairo, where his father was then acting as ḳāḍī ’l-ḳuḍāt sent by the sultan. When some ten years later the family was again temporarily in Cairo, Muḥammad ʿAlī [ q.v.] had the boy sent to the military school recently founded by him. Henceforth, his whole career was to be spent in the Egyptian service. S̲h̲arīf was a member of the “Egyptian mission” sent to Paris for higher education which included the future Khedives…

, or in the official style, Telk̲h̲īṣī , was the individual of the Ottoman Turkish administration appointed to prepare the précis called telk̲h̲īṣ [ q.v.] and to take it to the palace, where it was handed over to the chief of the eunuchs. The telk̲h̲īṣd̲j̲i was therefore an official of the Grand Vizier’s department; in addition to preparing the telk̲h̲īṣ, he took part in several official ceremonies. The telk̲h̲īṣd̲j̲i of the S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-Islām was not—at least in the later period—in direct communication with the palace; documents presented by him had to pass first …

(t.), dans l’organisation tribale turque, ancien titre désignant le «commandant de l’armée, des troupes». Le premier terme avait d’abord la forme sü, avec voyelle d’avant. Rien ne confirme que le mot ait été primitivement un emprunt au chinois (voir Sir Gérard Clauson, An etymological dict. of the pre-thirteenth century Turkish, Oxford 1972, 781). Sü apparaît fréquemment dans les inscriptions de l’Ork̲h̲on [ q.v.], et probablement aussi dans celles du Ienisseï. Dans les premières, on trouve l’expression sü sülemek «faire une expédition militaire», et le titre de sü bas̲h̲i̊ existe…

, nom d’une dynastie turque, d’origine og̲h̲uze [voir G̲h̲uzz], qui figure dans les sources européennes sous les formes Ottomans (angl. et fr.), Osmanlis (fr.), Osmanen (all.), etc. ¶ I. L’histoire politique et dynastique. II. L’histoire sociale et économique. III. La littérature. IV. La vie religieuse. V. L’architecture. VI. Les tapis et étoffes. VII. La céramique, le travail des métaux et les arts mineurs. VIII. La peinture. IX. La numismatique. I. L’histoire politique et dynastique, —1. Vue générale et chronologie de la dynastie. L’empire ottoman a été l’État islamique le …

(a.), titre honorifique utilisé dans le monde musulman jusqu’au début du XXe siècle, et attribué essentiellement à des dignitaires religieux. 1. Histoire primitive du terme. Le titre apparut tout d’abord dans le Ḵh̲urāsān à la fin du IVe/Xe siècle. Alors que les titres honorifiques composés avec le mot Islām (comme ʿIzz-, Ḏj̲alāl-, et Sayf al-Islām), étaient portés par des personnes détentrices du pouvoir séculier (notamment les vizirs des Fāṭimides, cf. van Berchem dans ZDPV, XVI [1983], 101), le titre de S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-Islām a toujours été réservé aux ʿulamāʾ et aux mystiques, co…