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[German Version] In his major work Der christliche Staatsmann (1932, 21932), W. Stapel devised the notion of a Volksnomos (“national or ethnic law”), arguing that the New Testament (and hence Christian) concept of law is not simply the fulfillment of the Old Testament concept but also the fulfillment of all laws of other nations. He described the wealth of national gods metaphorically as the “crypt” of the “Christian cathedral” of redemption. The nomos Germanikos, defined on the basis of racist ideology, gives the German nation its character; it is the embodiment of …

[German Version] (Oct 27, 1882, Calbe – Jun 1, 1954, Hamburg), political commentator and writer. After receiving his Dr.phil. in 1911, Stapel devoted his efforts to anti-modernist, nationalist ideas, becoming a dominant figure in the “conservative revolution.” From 1918 to 1938, he and Albrecht Erich Günther published the journal Deutsches Volkstum; with a Protestant bias and close friendship with E. Hirsch, they championed a program of ethnic nationalism with an anti-Semitic flavor. Especially between 1926 and 1938, Stapel was the dominant voi…

[German Version] (Nov 8, 1775, Copenhagen – Jan 30, 1854, Copenhagen). After theological studies at Copenhagen, which he began in 1790, Mynster worked as a private tutor; in 1802 he became pastor of Spjellerup in South Zealand. In 1811 he was appointed assistant pastor of the Church of Our Lady, the cathedral of Copenhagen. In 1812 he was also appointed lecturer and joint director of the pastoral seminary. In 1817 he became a member of the ministry of higher education. Finally, following a chaplai…

[German Version] (Aug 4, 1792, Braunfels – May 6, 1865, Bremen), Reformed preacher. From 1811 to 1815, he studied in Herborn and Tübingen, and took part in the wars of liberation against Napoleon. In Bremen, he was pastor at St. Michael's from 1817 and at St. Stephen's from 1827. As an anti-rationalist and anti-Hegelian he may be regarded as a figure of the Awakening (Revival/Revival movements). Mallet supported a cooperation between Reformed and Lutherans. His rousing sermons with a focus on soci…

[German Version] (Apr 11, 1789, Glückstadt – Jan 8, 1876, Berlin). Professor of theology and philosophy at Kiel since 1814, in 1835 Twesten succeeded F.D.E. Schleiermacher in Berlin, having been a follower theologically. He published very little. His lectures on dogmatics in the spirit of mediation theology remained incomplete but attained classical status. In them he dissociated himself from rationalism and maintained a position independent of Hegelian speculative theology, nascent confessionalis…

1. Allgemein 1.1. BegriffUnter S. (von lat. subiectum, »das Daruntergelegte«; als Terminus der klassischen Rhetorik: »das [einer Aussage] Zugrundeliegende«) versteht man seit dem Ende des 18. Jh.s eine philosophische Einstellung oder Haltung, die Welt und Wirklichkeit nicht als etwas objektiv Gegebenes ansieht, sondern als eine Vorstellung bzw. Schöpfung des sie wahrnehmenden Subjekts. Dieser Akzent auf der Wahrnehmung unterschied S. von Anfang an von ähnlichen Kategorien wie dem Charakter (als Wesensart und sittliche Beschaffenheit eines Subjekts; Tugend) oder der Indiv…

1. Overview 1.1. ConceptSince the late 18th century, the term  subjectivity (from Latin subiectum, “something placed underneath”; as a term of classical rhetoric: “basis [of a statement]”) has been understood as a philosophical mindset or attitude that views the world and reality not as something objectively given but as an idea or a creation of the subject perceiving it. From the outset, this emphasis on perception distinguished subjectivity from similar categories like character (the nature and moral qual…

[English Version] I. Kirchengeschichtlich In Anknüpfung an den von F. Lücke in Zusammenarbeit mit K. Ullmann, W.K. Umbreit, J.K. L. Gieseler und K.I. Nitzsch 1828 in der programmatischen Ankündigung der »Theol. Studien und Kritiken« (ThStKr) gebrauchten Begriff »Vermittlung« wurde in den theologiepolit. Auseinandersetzungen des Vormärz V. als polemische Fremdbez. dieser an F. Schleiermacher, dezidiert aber auch Melanchthon anknüpfenden Richtung geprägt. Die Verbindung von Glaube und Wissen, Freihei…

[English Version] 1.  Friedrich Christoph (21.4.1772 Rudolstadt, Thüringen – 18.5.1843 Gotha), Buchhändler und Verleger. Nach Lehrzeit in Leipzig eröffnete P. 1796 in Hamburg die erste reine, von einem Verlag getrennte Sortimentsbuchhandlung in Deutschland (Buchhandel: I.,3.). 1821 wechselte er nach Gotha und verlegte vornehmlich wiss. Werke aus den Bereichen der Historik und Theol. 1825 beteiligte sich P. führend an der Gründung des Börsenvereins der Dt. Buchhändler. Er unterstützte entscheidend den…

[English Version] 1.  Karl Heinrich v. , (11.12.1822 Öhringen – 13.8.1899 Tübingen). Ab 1840 Theologiestudium, 1847 PD und Stiftsrepetent in Tübingen, nach Pfarrtätigkeit 1851 zweiter Hofprediger in Stuttgart, 1859 Oberkonsistorialrat, 1861 in Tübingen Nachfolger F. Ch. Baurs und Erhebung in den Adelsstand, 1889 Kanzler der Universität und Mitglied der Abgeordnetenkammer in Württemberg, 1894 Staatsrat. W. trat als Kirchenhistoriker, v.a. jedoch als Neutestamentler hervor und bemühte sich in vermittlu…

[English Version] 1.  August Hermann , (1.9.1754 Halle – 7.7.1828 ebd.), Urenkel A.H. Franckes; nach der Schulzeit im Pädagogium Regium der Franckeschen Stiftungen ab 1771 Studium der Philos., klassische Philol. und Theol. in Halle, ab 1776 Lehrertätigkeit an den Schulen der Stiftungen. Als Dr. phil. seit 1777 Vorlesungen; 1779 a.o. Prof., 1784 o. Prof. für Theol. und Inspektor des Pädagogium Regium, 1785 Mitdirektor des Waisenhauses, 1792 Konsistorialrat, 1794 Dr. theol., 1799 Direktor der Franckesc…

[English Version] 1.  Johann Christian Friedrich , (25.10.1779 Eßlingen – 24.10.1837 Tübingen), 1797 Studium der Theol., Philos. und orientalischen Sprachen in Tübingen, ab 1808 Paris, 1810 Diakonus in Cannstatt, 1812 in Tübingen, 1815 dort o.Prof. für Bibl. Theol., 1826 Senior der Fakultät und Superattendent des Stifts, für dessen Bestehen er sich einsetzte. S. las AT und orientalische Sprachen, später auch NT und v.a. Dogmatik und Moral (Die Glaubenslehre der ev.-prot. Kirche, 1834). Der Vertreter e…

[German Version] 1. Johann Christian Friedrich (Oct 25 1779, Esslingen – Oct 24, 1837, Tübingen). In 1797 he began study of theology, philosophy, and Near Eastern languages in Tübingen. He also studied at Paris in 1808. In 1810 he was appointed deacon in Cannstatt and in 1812 in Tübingen, where he was appointed professor of biblical theology in 1815. In 1816 he was made senior of the faculty and superintendent of the Tübingen Stift, fighting for its continued existence. He lectured on the Old Testamen…

[German Version] I. Church History – II. Dogmatics I. Church History The 1828 programmatic announcement of the journal Theologische Studien und Kritiken ( ThStKr) in 1828 by G. Lücke in cooperation with K. Ullmann, F.W.K. Umbreit, J.K.L. Gieseler, and K.I. Nitzsch used the term Vermittlung, “mediation.” The theologico-political controversies of the Vormärz period coined mediation theology as a polemical term to attack this school of theology, which followed in the footsteps of F.D.E. Schleiermacher but clearly went back to Melanchthon. The linkage…

[German Version] 1. August Hermann (Sep 1, 1754, Halle – Jul 7, 1828, Halle), great-grandson of A.H. Francke. Following school at the Pädagogium Regium of the Frankische Stiftungen (Francke institutions), he began to study philosophy, classical philology, and theology in Halle. In 1776 he began teaching in the Halle schools. After receiving his doctorate, he began lecturing in 1777; in 1779 he was appointed associate professor and in 1784 full professor of theology and superintendent of the Pädagogiu…

[German Version] 1. Karl Heinrich von (Dec 11, 1822, Öhringen – Aug 13, 1899, Tübingen) began his theological studies in Tübingen in 1840, becoming a lecturer at the university and the Stift in 1847; after serving as a pastor, in 1851 he was appointed second court chaplain in Stuttgart and in 1859 chief consistorial councilor. In 1861 he succeeded F.C. Baur as professor of church history and history of dogma at Tübingen; he was also ennobled. In 1889 he became chancellor of the university and a member…

[German Version] 1. Friedrich Christoph. (Apr 21, 1772, Rudolstadt, Thuringia – May 18, 1843, Gotha), bookseller and publisher. After an apprenticeship in Leipzig, in 1796 Perthes opened in Hamburg the first retail bookstore in Germany not connected with a publisher (Printing and publishing: I, 3). In 1821 he moved to Gotha, where he specialized in publishing academic works in history and theology. In 1825 he played a leading role in establishing the Börsenverein der Deutschen Buchhändler (German Pub…

[German Version] 1. Rudolf (Mar 28, 1853, Eningen unter Achalm, Württemberg – Oct 20, 1929, Leipzig), professor of Old Testament in Breslau (1888–1898) and Leipzig (1898–1923), and the father of 2. In 1905/1906, Kittel published a critical edition of the OT on the basis of the edition by Jacob ben Chayim (1524/1525). The third edition (1929–1937) was based on the Codex Leningradensis (Biblical manuscripts: I, 2.a). Building on his own source studies on Gen to 2 Kgs and 1/2 Chron, Kittel wrote a Geschichte der Hebräer (2 vols., 1888–1892, ET: History of the Hebrews, 1895/1896), which he …

[English Version] 1.  August Friedrich Wilhelm , (4.2.1703 Harzgerode – 23.4.1786 Berlin), ref. Theologe. 1722 Studium der Theol. in Frankfurt/O., 1724 Hofmeister in Stettin und Holland (Einfluß des Symbolzwang-Kritikers Jean Barbeyrac [1674–1744] und des Arminianismus [Arminianer: I.]), 1728 Erzieher des Erbprinzen von Hessen-Homburg. 1731 dritter, 1737 erster Prediger der dt.-ref. Gemeinde in Magdeburg, 1738 KonsR und Inspektor der ref. Kirchen im Herzogtum Magdeburg mit ausgeprägtem sozialen Engage…

[German Version] 1. August Friedrich Wilhelm (Feb 4, 1703, Harzgerode – Apr 23, 1786, Berlin), Reformed theologian. In 1722 he began to study theology in Frankfurt an der Oder; in 1724 he served as a domestic tutor in Stettin (Szczecin) and Holland, where he was influenced by Jean Barbeyrac (1674–1744), a critic of confessional tests, and Arminianism (Arminians: I). In 1728 he was appointed tutor to the heir to the throne of Hesse-Homburg. In 1731 he was appointed third preacher of German Reformed chu…