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, the Arabic grammatical term denoting the vowel i: kasra designates the ¶ written sign itself, kasr the sound in question (Wright, Ar. Gr.3 , İ, 8A). This distinction corresponds, for example, with the text of al-Dānī, al-Muḥkam fī naḳṭ al-masāḥif , Damascus 1379/1960, 42, ll. 4-7, and Ḳitāb al-Naḳṭ (Bibl. Isl., 3, 1932), 137, ll. 8-11, but kasr can also have another interpretation: the verb kasara ( i) “to break”, can be used to mean: “to provide [a ḥarf ] with a kasra” , the mouth being considered “broken” at the time of the pronunciation of the kasra (according to Abu ’l-Aswad al-Duʾalī,…

“motion and rest”, a technical expression used, on the one hand, in philosophy and theology, and, on the other, in grammar. I.—Philosophy and Theology I.—The Falāsifa take the Greek theories for their base. Thus al-Kindī exactly reproduces Aristotle’s thought when he writes, like him linking time and motion, that time is a duration that is counted by motion ( mudda taʿudduhā ’l-ḥaraka- , cf. Phys . IV, 219 b: ἀριθμός κινήσεως ...ὁ δὲ χρόνος ὲστι τὸ ἀριθμούμενον, that is to say that time is the counted ¶ number of motion). Furthermore, al-Kindī knows the famous formula: time is th…

(A.), inf. of the verb istat̲h̲nā “to except”, a technical term in Arabic grammar signifying “exception”. This assumes, first of all, a complete sentence; then (when the proposition has been stated) one or more beings are excepted from the functions exercised in the sentence. In English, except is used, e.g.: Everyone came except Zayd , Arabic uses means of expression of various origins (Sībawayhi, i, ch. 185): g̲h̲ayra (a noun signifying “difference”); siwā , suwā (more rarely sawāʾa , siwāʾa ) (also a noun); illā ( = * in-lā “if not”) “except”; the verbs k̲h̲alā , ʿadā …

—The aim of the present article is to clarify general ideas, and to show what system underlies the expression of grammatical number, as regards the Arabic plural and collective. The Arabic language distinguishes. between: 1) the singular, 2) dual, 3) plural, 4) collective. Arab grammarians have paid close attention to the first three: 1) the singular: al-wāḥid ; mufrad is applied to the “simple” noun (as opposed to murakkab , applied to the “compound” noun) by the Muf . § 4; but it has also been used for “singular”, likewise fard [ q.v.].—2) the dual: al-mut̲h̲annā , …

, Abū Muḥammad ʿAbd Allāh b. Barrī b. ʿAbd al-D̲j̲abbār al-Maḳdisī (so called after his family’s place of origin) al-Miṣrī al-S̲h̲āfiʿī Arab grammarian born at Cairo on 5 Rad̲j̲ab 499/13 March 1106 and died there 27 S̲h̲awwāl 582/11 January 1187. He studied under the masters of that period (see Ibn K̲h̲allikān. ii, 293); when he himself was a master, among his disciples was Abū Mūsā al-Ḏj̲azūlī al-Naḥwī [ q.v.]. During the whole of Ibn Barrī’s life the Crusades were in progress (capture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders, 1099; disastrous defeat of the Crusaders at Ḥa…

, 8th letter of the Arabic alphabet, transcribed d; numerical value 4, in accordance with the order of the letters in the Syriac (and Canaanite) alphabet, where d is the fourth letter [see abd̲j̲ad ]. It continues a d of common Semitic. Definition: voiced dental occlusive; according to the Arab grammatical tradition: s̲h̲adīda , mad̲j̲hūra . For the mak̲h̲rad̲j̲ : niṭʿiyya according to al-K̲h̲alīl (al-Zamak̲h̲s̲h̲arī, Mufaṣṣal , 2nd ed. J. P. Broch, 191, line 1), who places the point of articulation at the niṭʿ (or niṭaʿ ), the anterior part of the hard pala…

, 20th letter of the Arabic alphabet, transcribed f; numerical value 80, as in the Syriac (and Canaanite) alphabet [see abd̲j̲ad ]. Definition: fricative, labio-dental, unvoiced; according to the Arabic grammatical tradition: rik̲h̲wa , s̲h̲afawiyya (or s̲h̲afahiyya ), mahmūsa ; f is a continuation of a p in ancient Semitic and common Semitic. For the phonological oppositions of the phoneme f, see J. Cantineau, Esquisse , in BSL (no. 126), 94, 1°; for the incompatibilities, ibid., 134. Modifications: some examples exist of the passage of f to t̲h̲ , as in the doublet: nukāf and nukāt̲h̲ …

, letter of the alphabet, word; Ibn Ḏj̲innī ( Sirr al-ṣināʿa , i, 15-19), examining the etymology of the word, finds an original meaning of ḥadd , “limit”: innamā ḥarf al-s̲h̲ayʾ ḥadduh wa-nāḥiyatuh ; and, in speaking of the ḥurūf al-hid̲j̲āʾ : ḥadd munḳaṭaʿ al-ṣawt wa-g̲h̲āyatuh wa-ṭarafuh (16, lines 6-7), “The limit where the cutting of the ṣawt occurs, its end, its extremity.” This explanation introduces an element from a system which was elaborated much later: the maḳṭaʿ , but it is important because of the use of the word ḥadd, “limit.” The LA contains a long article on ḥarf …

is the infinitive of the verb aḍmara/ yuḍmiru , “to conceal”. The Arab grammarians use it when speaking about an unexpressed grammatical element, supposedly existent and active; it can thus be translated as “imply”. The opposite is iẓhār , from the verb aẓhara “to reveal”. A good example of the two is supplied by Ch. 50 of Sībawayhi. One can say (i, 107): al-ṣabiyya al-ṣabiyya , “the small boy, the small boy!” with iḍmār of a verb in the d̲j̲azm requiring the naṣb of the substantive, or, with iẓhār of This verb: lā tuwaṭṭiʾ al-ṣabiyya , “do not tread on the small boy”. This verb aḍmara is used thus…

, Abū ʿAbd Allāh Ḏj̲amāl al-Dīn Muḥammad b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Mālik al-Ṭāʾī al-D̲j̲ayyānī (the name given by al-Maḳḳarī, ii, 421; for his reasons see 427, lines 13-6), Arab grammarian. He was born in Jaen in 600 or 601/1203-4 or 1204-5, according to the most generally accepted date, and was at first a Mālikī. Al-Maḳḳarī (ii, 421) gives the names of four of his teachers in his native town; to them may be added that of Abū ʿAlī ʿUmar al-S̲h̲alawbīnī, in Seville. Very soon he left for the Near…

(a.), “name”, is the technical term used in Arabic grammar to signify the noun. Ism is a biliteral and, as such, belongs to a very ancient linguistic stock (see H. Fleisch, Traité de la philologie arabe , i, § 52 b) it has been given a w as a third radical consonant so that it may be included in the scheme of morphological formations: broken pl. asmāʾ , denominative verb: samā , yasmū , more frequently sammā , yusammī , “to call, name”. Of the Arab grammarians, the Kūfans derive ism from wasm “sign” . The Baṣrans from sumuww “elevation” (see their discussions, Ibn al-Anbārī, K. al-Inṣāf …

, orthographical sign alif , which is the ¶ first letter of the Arabic alphabet, with numerical value one ; transcribedʾ internally and at the end of words, ignored initially (except in special cases) in the system of the EI. Definition: unvoiced glottal occlusive. For the Arab grammarians, hamza is a ḥarf ṣaḥīḥ defined as: s̲h̲adīda mad̲j̲hūra , having as mak̲h̲rad̲j̲ : aḳṣā ’ l-ḥalḳ “The farthest part of the throat” (like h) (al-Zamak̲h̲s̲h̲arī. Mufaṣṣal 2, § 732). For the phonological oppositions of the phoneme hamza, see J. Cantineau, Esquisse , 178; for the incompatibilities, ibid., …

, “letters of the alphabet”. Al-hid̲j̲āʾ is defined in LA, xx, 228, l. 17, xv, 353b, l. 4-5, as taḳṭīʿ al-lafẓa bi-ḥurūfihā . This follows Ibn Sīda, who in his Muk̲h̲aṣṣaṣ (xiii, 3 end) attributes this definition to the Ṣāḥib al-ʿAyn (al-K̲h̲alīl): “cutting up the word into its ḥurūf”, that is, “spelling”. Contemporary or recent dictionaries of the Arab world ( Muḥīṭ al-Muḥīṭ , al-Bustān , Aḳrab al-mawārid , al-Mund̲j̲id ) define it more precisely as taḅṭīʿ al-lafẓa wa-taʿdīd ḥurūfihā maʿa ḥarakātihā : “cutting up the word and enumerating its ḥurūf with their ḥarakāt” …

, the seventh letter of the Arabic alphabet, here transcribed as k̲h̲. Its numerical value is 600, according to the eastern order [see abd̲j̲ad ]. Definition: voiceless post-velar fricative. According to the Arabic grammatical tradition: rīk̲h̲wa , mahmūsa , mustaʿliya . For the mak̲h̲rad̲j̲ : min adnā ’l-ḥalḳ (from that part of the throat nearest to the mouth) (al-Zamak̲h̲s̲h̲arī, Mufaṣṣal2 , ed. Broch, § 732); Ibn Yaʿīs̲h̲ ( S̲h̲arḥ , ed. G. Jahn, 1460, 1. 6) defines it thus: “the k̲h̲āʾ is nearer to the mouth than the g̲h̲ayn ”. The Arabs accordingly placed the k̲h̲aʾ …

, “inflection” (verbal noun of fourth form, amāla ), a phonetic phenomenon. It consists in “ alif ’ s tending towards yāʾ and fatḥa ’ s tending towards kasra ” (Ibn al-Sarrād̲j̲, Mūzad̲j̲ , 139). Modern phonetics regards it as a palatalization, produced by a rising movement of the tongue towards the prepalatal region. Depending on the extent of this movement, the vowel a shifts from its zone of articulation to that of ę or to that of e (or even to that of i). Arab grammarians distinguish an imāla s̲h̲adīda , “strong” (probably a > e) and an imāla mutawassiṭa , “medium” (probably a > ä …

, D̲j̲amāl al-Dīn abū ʿAmr ʿUt̲h̲mān b. ʿUmar b. Abī bakr al-Mālikī , Māliki faḳīh and grammarian who owes his popular name to the fact that his father, a Kurd, was chamberlain ( ḥād̲j̲ib ) to the amīr ʿIzz al-Dīn Mūsak al-Ṣalāḥī. He was born at Asnā, a village in Upper Egypt, after, 570/1174-5. He studied the Islamic sciences in Cairo with great success, particularly with al-S̲h̲āṭibī and Muḥammad al-G̲h̲aznawī. After that, at least for some years, he must have lived and taught in Cairo, as is shown by the Amālī dated from that town, the earliest in 609/1212-3,…

, 9th letter of the Arabic alphabet, here transcribed d̲h̲ ; numerical value 700, in the Eastern system [see abd̲j̲ad ]. Definition: voiced interdental fricative; according to the Arabic grammatical tradition: rik̲h̲wa mad̲j̲hūra . For the mak̲h̲rad̲j̲ : lit̲h̲awiyya in al-K̲h̲alīl (al-Zamak̲h̲s̲h̲ari, Muf ., 191, line 2, 2nd ed. J. P. Broch) indicates a position of the tongue on the lit̲h̲a “gum”, therefore gingival . Ibn Yaʿīs̲h̲ (1460, line 21, ed. G. Jahn) records a position quite close to this, “the base of the central incisors”, and therefore alveolar . S…

, in Arabic grammar, refers to the constituent parts of the nominal phrase, e.g. Zayd un karīm un “Zayd is noble”; here, Zayd, the first term, is mubtadaʾ , and karīm, the second one, is k̲h̲abar. For the verbal phrase, the corresponding terms are fāʿil agent and fiʿl verb. The Arab grammarians, as can readily be seen, recognised two types of phrase, the nominal and the verbal, in their language. They also recognised clearly the necessity of the ʿaḳd , the nexus linking the two terms of these phrases, and they called it isnād “the act of leaning one thing against another”, the linkage between al-mu…

, infinitive of the verb aḍāfa ( ilā ) “to unite (with)”, has became a term in Arabic grammar. In the Kitāb of Sībawayhi it has at first a very wide meaning: it is inserted into the theory of the d̲j̲arr (genitive) [the Kūfans say k̲h̲afḍ ] set out in Chapter 100. There we find: “al-D̲j̲arr is found only in nouns that are muḍāf ilayhi” , that is: “that have received an adjunction”, the muḍāf being that which is “added”. It is the iḍāfa , the fact of having united one term with another, that requires the d̲j̲arr ( Mufaṣṣal , § 110), but the “operator” of this putting into the d̲j̲arr, the ʿāmil , is the ḥarf al…

, 6th letter of the Arabic alphabet, is transcribed ḥ; numerical value: 8, as in the Syriac (and Canaanite) alphabet [see abd̲j̲ad ]. Definition: unvoiced pharyngeal spirant; according to Arabic grammatical tradition: rik̲h̲wa mahmūsa , as regards the mak̲h̲rad̲j̲: awsaṭ al-ḥalḳ , “the middle part of the throat” (al-Zamak̲h̲s̲h̲arī, Mufaṣṣal2 , § 732). ḥ is a very much stronger and harsher spirant than h. It is produced by the friction of the expressed air against the strongly contracted walls of the pharynx (a breath sound without velar vibration), from wh…