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, a town of the Indian Pand̲j̲āb, situated 29° 7′ N., 76° 0′ E., in the Hariyānā [ q.v.] region of which it was the old capital until supplanted by Ḥiṣār Fīrūza [ q.v.] in 757/1356. It is known from inscriptions that it was occupied by the Tomārs and Čawhāns before the Muslim conquest, and was perhaps occupied from Kus̲h̲āṇa times, 1st or 2nd century A.D.: certainly the old fort, to the north-east of the present town, is an extensive tell representing an accumulation of many cultural layers. Hānsī was already a major stronghold when Masʿūd, son of Maḥm…

(a.), pl. nuḳabāʾ , “chief, leader”, of a tribe or other group, a term used in various senses at different times of Islamic history. For its sense as head of the community of ʿAlid descendants, see naḳīb al-as̲h̲rāf . 1. In early Islamic history. One of the term’s usages in early Islamic history is in connection with the preparatory stages of the ʿAbbāsid Revolution of 129-32/746-50. The term naḳīb had already established itself in the story of the Prophet Muḥammad’s career, when the Medinans negotiating with him about the hid̲j̲ra from Mecca to Medina were asked to appoint 12 nuḳabāʾ as repr…

, the name given in the Indian chronicles to the south-western region of Rād̲j̲āsthān [ q.v.]: approximately the region now known, from its principal town, as Udaypur (although the town of Udaypur [ q.v.] was not founded until 966/1559), hilly with considerable forest tracts, separated from its Rād̲j̲pūt neighbour Mārwāŕ on the west by the Aravallī hills, and bordered on the south by Gud̲j̲arāt, on the south-east and east by Mālwā, on the north-east by the Dihlī sultanate (see Map s.v. rād̲j̲āsthān ). The region is more celebrated for its defences agains…

, the name of many towns and cities in India (Skr. nagara “city”). Those of significance for Islam are as follows: 1. Nagar, familiar name locally for Aḥmadnagar [ q.v.], being even used on signposts. C.R. Singhal, Mint-towns of the Mughal emperors of India , Bombay 1953, 7, describes a coin of typical Aḥmadnagar fabric where the mint-name is simply Nagar. 2. Nagar, a large town in Karnāt́aka, some 55 miles west of S̲h̲imōgā, once a capital of local rād̲j̲ās , captured in 1176/1763 by Ḥaydar ʿAlī [ q.v.], and so for a short time known as Ḥaydarnagar; Ḥaydar ʿAlī ¶ established his principal ars…

, a Persian title abbreviated from the Arab amīr and approximating in meaning both to it and to the title mīrzā [ q.v.]. (For the dropping of the initial alif cf. Bū Sahl for Abū Sahl, etc.). Like amīr the title is applied to princes (Manūčihrī, ed. A. de Biberstein-Kazimirsky, ¶ Menoutchehri , poète persan du onzième siècle de notre ère , Paris 1886, 96, speaks of Sultan Masʿūd of G̲h̲azna, as “Mīr”), but it is also borne by poets and other men of letters (e.g. Mīr ʿAlī S̲h̲īr, Mīr K̲h̲wānd, Mīr Muḥsin; cf. the following arts.). In India and Pakistan, Sayyids sometimes call themselv…

(a.), active participle from the form IV verb as̲h̲rafa , literally “overseer, supervisor, controller”, the title of an official who appears at various times and with various duties in the history of the ʿAbbāsid caliphate and its successor states, from the Mag̲h̲rib to the eastern Islamic lands. 1. In the Arab and Persian lands. ¶ The office of is̲h̲rāf seems basically to have been a financial one. The supervision of financial operations was in the first century or so of the ʿAbbāsid caliphate usually entrusted to the dīwān al-zimām/al-azimma [see dīwān. i. The caliphate]; in the re…

, name given to the tract of country in the Indian Pand̲j̲āb to the north-west of Dihlī, surrounding the towns of Hānsī [ q.v.] and Ḥiṣār Fīrūza [ q.v.] in the present Ḥiṣār district and extending east into the Rohtak [ q.v.] district; it lies south of the Ghaggar stream—which partly coincides with the ancient Saraswatī river which once joined the Indus [see sindhu ], now little more than a monsoon drainage channel whose waters are lost in the Rād̲j̲āst̲h̲ān sands—and is traversed by Fīrūz S̲h̲āh Tug̲h̲luḳ’s West Ḏj̲amnā canal [for the history of this see references s.v. d̲j̲amnā …

, the name commonly given by Indian historians to a turbulent family of Tīmūrid descent, troublesome especially in the 10th/16th century, in the reign of the Mug̲h̲al emperor Akbar, to whom they were mostly sixth cousins, as descendants of ʿUmar S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Mīrzā, the second son of Tīmūr (Akbar was descended from D̲j̲alāl al-Dīn Mīrān S̲h̲āh. the third son of Tīmūr). Abu ‘l-Faḍl and Badāuʾnī refer to them as mīrzāyān , and Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī al-Dābir as awlād Mīrzā Muḥammad Tīmūr Sulṭān . There may be confusion in the texts when one of them is spoken of in th…

, S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ D̲j̲amāl al-Dīn Aḥmad , also called Ḳuṭb D̲j̲amāl al-Dīn, a Ṣūfī mystic of the Indian Čis̲h̲tiyya [ q.v.] order, b. 580/1184-5, d. in. Hānsī 659/1260-1. He was a descendant of the theologian and religious lawyer Abū Ḥanīfa, and was a senior k̲h̲alīfa of S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Farīd al-Dīn Masʿūd “Gand̲j̲-i S̲h̲akar” [ q.v.] during the time the latter spent at Hānsī [ q.v.]. He is said to have been the k̲h̲aṭīb of Hānsī when he joined Farīd al-Dīn, and to have resigned this post and its consequent material benefits as a necessary condition of his spiritual discipline. He is known as the aut…

(a.), literally “ranks, degrees” (sing. martaba ), a term applied especially in Muslim India to the “honours” or “dignities”, aṭbāl wa- ʿalamāt , drums and standards, borne by the sultan or conferred by him on the great amīrs (Ibn Baṭṭūṭa, iii, 106; tr. Gibb (1971), iii, 599), later elaborated (ibid., iii, 110; tr. iii, 601) as “standards, kettledrums, trumpets, bugles and reedpipes” as carried by two ¶ ships among the fifteen of the governor of Lāharī Bandar. The practice of Fīrūz S̲h̲ah’s troops marching with 90,000 cavalry under 180 marātib and nis̲h̲āna-yi har d̲j̲ins (ʿAfīf, Taʾrīk̲h…

( et́ājā ), a district in the south-west of Uttar Prades̲h̲, India, lying between 26° 21′ and 27° 1′. N., 78° 45′ E.; and also the principal town of that district, 26° 46′ N., 79° 1′ E., on the river D̲j̲amnā [ q.v.]. The common spelling of the name is Etawa; other forms are Etaya (Elphinstone), Itay (de Laet), and sometimes Int́āwa in the Muslim chronicles. Popular etymology connects the name with īnt́ āwā , “brick kiln”. The region of It́āwā was probably within the kingdom of Kanawd̲j̲ [ q.v.] at the time of the raid on that kingdom by Maḥmūd of G̲h̲azna in 409/1018, and again at …

A line of eighteen Muslim sultans who ruled, or claimed to rule, in the Deccan from 748-933/1347-1527, after a group of Muslim nobles led by Ismāʿīl Muk̲h̲ had successtally rebelled against the sultan of Dihlī, Muḥammad b. Tug̲h̲luḳ. The more vigorous Ḥasan Gangu supplanted Ismāʿīl and was proclaimed Sulṭān ʿAlā al-Dīn Ḥasan Bahman S̲h̲āh. (On the latter’s origin see Major W. Haig, Some Notes on the Bahmanī Dynasty , A SB LXXIII Pt. 1 (Extra No.) 1904, 463; Proceedings of Indian History Congress , 1938, 304-8; H. K. Sherwani, Gangu Bahmani , in Journal of Indian History …

, the eleventh Bahmanī dynast and the third of the line to rule from Bidar, 862/1458 to 865/1461. He was the eldest son of ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Aḥmad II, who designated him his heir shortly before his death, at the same time giving him s̲h̲rewd if idealistic advice about the management of the kingdom (Niẓām al-Dīn Bak̲h̲s̲h̲ī, Ṭabaḳāt-i Akbarī , Bibl. Ind. ed., Calcutta 1913, i, 421). Party faction was rife in the Deccan, and even before his accession, on rumours of ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Aḥmad’s death in 859/1455, the king’s brother-in-law D̲j̲alā…

( Ḳadam Rasūl Allāh ). Among the miracles ( muʿd̲j̲izāt ) popularly attributed to Muḥammad was the fact that when he trod on a rock, his foot sank into the stone and left its impress there. This miracle is usually referred to along with others, e.g., that he cast no shadow, that if one of his hairs fell in the fire, it was not burnt, that flies did not settle on his clothes etc. (cf. al-Ḥalabī, al-Sīra al-Ḥalabiyya , Būlāḳ, 1292, iii, 407), or that his sandals left no imprint on the sand (cf. Ibn Ḥad̲j̲ar al-Haytamī, commentary on al-Ḳaṣīda al-Ḥamziyya , 1. 176. (Ind. Off,…

(p.), “place of prayer”, in India an alternative name for ʿīdgāh , the open structure built usually to the west of a town, consisting solely of what in a mosque would be the western wall, with miḥrāb (s) and minbar and, essentially, within a spacious enclosure which should be capable of accommodating the entire adult male Muslim population; the wallstructure may stand at the western end of a large paved area ( ṣaḥn ), but there is usually no ḥawḍ for ablutions. The structure is used only for the celebration of the two ʿīd festivals ( ʿīd al-aḍḥā and ʿid al-fiṭr [ q.vv.]), and no special sanctity…

, a town in the Okhāmandal district in the north-west of the Kāt́hiāwād peninsula of Gud̲j̲arāt, India, associated in Hindū legend with the god Kris̲h̲na and hence considered to be of special sanctity by Hindūs. It is known also by the names of Dwārawatī and D̲j̲agat, and was notorious for its pirates until the 19th century. Under the name Bāruwī ( < dwārawatī ) it is referred to by al-Bīrūnī ( K. Taʾrīk̲h̲ al-Hind , tr. E. Sachau, London 1888, ii, 105 ff.). It was sacked by the Gud̲j̲arāt sultan Maḥmūd I “Begd́ā” in 877/1473 as a reprisal for an attack by pirates on the schol…

, the name given to the largest religious community of India, conquered by the Muslims in the 6th/12th century. Early Muslim knowledge about the religious belief of India was very small: and no wonder, for Hinduism is utterly different from Islam in most of its ways. It is essentially polytheistic, has no official scripture (although many sacred books), no canon, many different schools of belief and of philosophy and yet really no orthodoxy, and above all no prophecy; it tolerates the worship of…

, a leader, as Rāʾī C̀and Pūrbīya, of the Pūrbīya (= "eastern") Rād̲j̲pūts, with tribal possessions in the Čāndērī [ q.v.] district and hence feudatories of the sultans of Mālwā [ q.v.], who became prominent in Mālwā-Gud̲j̲arāt-Mēwār-Dihlī politics early in the 10th/16th century. The Mālwā succession had been fiercely contested after the death of Nāṣir al-Dīn S̲h̲āh Ḵh̲ald̲j̲ī in 916/1510, who had designated his third son, Aʿẓam Humāyūn, as his heir. He duly succeeded, as Maḥmūd S̲h̲āh Ḵh̲ald̲j̲ī II [ q.v.], with his elder brothers S̲h̲ihāb al-Dīn and Ṣāḥib Ḵh̲ān as active …

( Jaunpur ), city on the Gumtī in Uttar Pradesh, north India, lat. 25° 48′ N., long. 82° 42′ E., and the surrounding district. The city was founded in 760/1359 by Fīrūz S̲h̲āh Tug̲h̲luḳ [ q.v.], near the ancient Manāyč reduced by Maḥmūd of G̲h̲azni in 409/1018 and renamed Ẓafarābād by Ẓafar K̲h̲ān, its governor under G̲h̲iyāt̲h̲ al-Dīn Tug̲h̲luḳ after 721/1321. Muslim historians derive the name Ḏj̲awnpur from Ḏj̲awna S̲h̲āh, Muḥammad b. Tug̲h̲luḳ’s title before his accession; but D̲j̲amanpur is known as a by-form of the name (? connexion with Ḏj̲awn=D̲j̲amnā, [ q.v.]; Skt. Yamunendrapura…

, name of a fortified town in northern Gud̲j̲arāt, 100 km. north-east of Aḥmadābād, and of its surrounding territory, largely mountainous. The former rād̲j̲ā s of Īdar were in the 8th/14th century a constant thorn in the flesh of the first governors in Gud̲j̲arāt of the Dihlī sultanate, and military action was almost always required to collect the tribute the governors exacted. After Gud̲j̲arāt became an independent sultanate Aḥmad S̲h̲āh I was similarly troubled, and the strength of Īdar, so near…