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Interaction

(1,248 words)

Author(s): Stoellger, Philipp | Heesch, Matthias | Mette, Norbert
[German Version] I. Philosophy of Religion – II. Ethics – III. Practical Theology I. Philosophy of Religion To begin the interpretation of society and religion with the notion of interaction means to assume a basis of action. Fundamental forms of interaction are, for example, cooperation, exchange, conflict and competition, or, according to F.D.E. Schleiermacher, identical and individual symbolization and organization. Problems of interaction occ…

Creativity

(1,697 words)

Author(s): Stoellger, Philipp | Martin, Gerhard Marcel | Lukas, Josef
[German Version] I. Philosophy of Religion – II. Dogmatics – III. Ethics – IV. Practical Theology – V. Psychology I. Philosophy of Religion Creativity became an issue in the Judeo-Christian context with regard to the Creator. In contrast to the Platonic demiurge or to the Aristotelian unmoved mover, the triun…

Ideology

(2,041 words)

Author(s): Bohlender, Matthias | Stoellger, Philipp | Lohmann, Friedrich
[German Version] I. Philosophy – II. Sociology of Knowledge I. Philosophy 1. The meaning of the word ideology cannot be separated from its historical use (a) as an epistemological term denoting a general theory of perceptions, ideas, and notions (ideo-logy), and (b) as a politico-philosophical term denoting a general critique of knowledge, an analysis intended to clear up false or distorted forms and objects of cognition (Ideological criticism). Although the origin of these two sides of ideology is usually traced to F. Bacon, Francis's discussion of “idols,” its theoretical career really began in late 18th-century France with Antoine Louis Claude Destutt de Tracy (1754–1836) ¶ and the Idéologues. In the 19th century, K. Marx and F. Engels gave the term its modern pejorative meaning of a system of ideas necessarily erroneous in its reflection of social reality. Despite various transformations of the purely negative sense in the first half of the 20th century, it was not until the 1980s, in the context of th…

Illusion

(664 words)

Author(s): Stoellger, Philipp
[German Version] General: The German word Illusion originally meant criticism of art as a mental delusion (Plato); in the 17th and 18th centuries, it came to denote trompe l'oeil art. In English illusion in the sense of “deceptive appearance” came into use in the 14th century. Criticism of Metaphysics: British empiricism (I) employed illusions pejoratively in the sense of “erroneous notions.” T. Hobbes blamed the devil for the illusory allegorical misinterpretation of Scripture. J. Locke attacked illusion in the sense of imagination and poetry, and D. Hume attacked “illusions of passion” and “illusions of religious superstition or philosophical enthusiasm.” G. Berkeley formulated the Idealist version of the suspicion that the outward world is a mere illusion (cf. R. Descartes). For I. Kant, all dogmatic metaphysics was a consequence of an uncritical use of the imagination, dialectical illusion. Psychologically, however, he held that illusions were inevitable, since our senses constantly deceive us and we confuse subjective with objective nece…

Semantics

(2,027 words)

Author(s): Stoellger, Philipp | Künne, Wolfgang
[German Version] I. Linguistics and Literary Studies The problem of the meaning and significance of expressions, linguistic signs, and words has arisen explicitly every time the topic of language has been addressed, at least since the time of Socrates and the Sophistic school (Plato, Cratylus). In antiquity there was still ¶ debate over whether signs had their meaning “by nature” or “by convention”; today it is generally held that meaning is the product of sociocultural convention or common usage. Semantics, the theory of the meaning of words, is a subdiscipline of semiotics and a perspective on linguistic analysis (alongside syntax and pragmatics) that studies the relationship of linguistic units among themselves and the referents they denote. Depending on how …

Contingency

(1,312 words)

Author(s): Stoellger, Philipp
[German Version] I. Chance vs. Contingency – II. Accident vs. Essence – III. Chance vs. Order – IV. Paradigms of Chance I. Chance vs. Contingency Chance (Co…