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al-fazarī , abū wāt̲h̲la , official in the service of the Umayyads who governed ʿIrāḳ from Baṣra between 99/718 and 101/720. He was appointed to this office by ʿUmar b. ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz in place of Yazīd b. al-Muhallab, and received the order to arrest all the sons of al-Muhallab. He managed to get hold of al-Mufaḍḍal, Ḥabīb, Marwān and Yazīd, but the latter escaped and returned to the attack. ʿAdī then raised the troops of Baṣra and had a trench dug round the town to prevent the …

, a mountain outside Mecca, on the north side of the valley of Minā [ q.v.]. Yāḳūt, Muʿd̲j̲am al-buldān , ed. Beirut, ii, 72-4, enumerates several mountains of this name, and also gives a tradition that T̲h̲abīr was, with Ḥirāʾ [ q.v.] and T̲h̲awr, one of the three most significant mountains outside Mecca. It seems to have played a role in the ceremonies of the pre-Islamic ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ or pilgrimage outside Mecca. In Umayyad times, in the early 8th century A.D., the governor of Mecca K̲h̲ālid b. ʿAbd Allāh al-Ḳasrī [ q.v.], on the orders of Sulaymān b. ʿAbd al-Malik, piped water from a…

, Abū D̲j̲aʿfar Muḥammad b. ʿAlī (he also had the honorific name of D̲j̲āmal al-Dīn ), vizier of the Zangids; he had been carefully educated by his father, and at a very early age was given an official appointment in the dīwān al-ʿarḍ of the Sald̲j̲ūḳid sultan Maḥmūd. Subsequently he became one of the most intimate friends of Zangī, who made him governor of Naṣībīn and al-Raḳḳa and entrusted him with general supervision of the whole empire. After Zangī’s assassination he very nearly shared his master’s ¶ fate, but succeeded in leading the troops to Mosul. Zangī’s son, Sayf al-Dīn…

, nāṣiḥ al-dīn abū bakr aḥmad b. muḥammad al-anṣārī , Arab poet born at Arrad̲j̲ān in 460/1067, died in 544/1149-50 at Tustar or ʿAskar Mukram. Religious studies, pursued mainly at the Niẓāmiyya at Iṣfahān, enabled him to be nominated ḳāḍī of Tustar, but he early devoted himself to poetry, which he considered as a means of livelihood, and wrote panegyrics, addressed in particular to the ʿAbbāsid Caliph al-Mustaẓhir, in ḳaṣīda form, with the traditional nasīb . Although some critics praise his work, al-Arrad̲j̲ānī must be considered as a versifier of limited stature. His dīwān …

, name of various Turkish chiefs, particularly the Dānis̲h̲mendid prince known also as Amīr G̲h̲āzī [see dānis̲h̲mendids ] and the atabeg of Aleppo [see zangids ]. (Ed.)

(a.), literally “he who seeks”, in Ṣūfī mystical parlance, the novice or postulant or seeker after spiritual enlightenment by means of traversing ( sulūk ) the Ṣūfī path in obedience to a spiritual director ( murs̲h̲id , pīr , s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ [ q.vv.]). The equivalent Persian term is s̲h̲āgird , literally “pupil, apprentice”. The stages of the novice’s spiritual initiation are detailed in numerous Ṣūfī manuals and works touching on Ṣūfism, such as al-G̲h̲azālī’s Iḥyāʾ , and the term murīd figures in numerous titles of such works. One of the earliest manuals was the Ādāb al-murīdīn …

, Udaipur , the usual more recent name for the region in southwestern Rād̲j̲āsthān known in Islamic Indian times as Mēwāŕ, and the name also of its main town, actually founded in 966/1599. For this Rād̲j̲pūt state, which strenuously opposed the Muslims from the 8th/14th century onwards until its conquest by the Mug̲h̲al Akbar in the later 10th/16th century, see mēwāŕ . The subsequent Native State of Udaypūr in British India became part of the first Rajasthan Union in April 1948, and is now a District of the Rajasthan State of the Indian Union. (Ed.) Bibliography See that to mēwāŕ, and also Imper…

or maḥmūd , called muʿīn al-fuḳarāʾ , Transoxanian author of an important work on the religious leaders and saints of Buk̲h̲ārā, the Kītāb-i Mullāzādū or Kïtāb-i Mazārāt-i Buk̲h̲ārā , in which the cemeteries of the city and their occupants are described. Since the last date mentioned in the book is 814/1411-12, the author must have lived in the reigns of Tīmūr and S̲h̲āh-Ruk̲h̲ [see tīmūrids ]. From the number of extant manuscripts, the work was obviously popular in Central Asia. Extracts from it were first given by Barthold, Turkestan v epok̲h̲u Mongolskago nas̲h̲estviy̲a̲ , i, Teksty …

, a form of tax-farm used in the Ottoman Empire. On the Ottoman iltizām in general, see mültezim . The immediately following article deals with the iltizām in 19th century Egypt. (Ed.) The iltizām as an agrarian system was incompatible with Muḥammad ʿAlī’s endeavour to establish a centralized bureaucratic régime in Egypt. During the period preceding his rule, iltizāms had come to be granted no longer for a year or even for a few years but for the lifetime of the holder, or even as heritable and alienable property. Thus the state was …

, pl. of ḥaḳḳ [ q.v.], legal rights or claims, and corresponding obligations, in the religious law of Islam. One distinguishes the ḥuḳūḳ Allāh , the rights or claims of Allāh, e.g., the ḥadd [ q.v.] punishments, and the ḥuḳūḳ al-ādamiyyīn , private, and essentially civil, rights or claims. Used of things, ḥuḳūḳ signifies the accessories necessarily belonging to them, such as the privy and the kitchen of a house, and servitudes in general; this term is of common occurrence in the legal formularies ( s̲h̲urūṭ [ q.v.]). In contemporary terminology, ḥuḳūḳ means merely “law” in the modern …

, Abū ʿAlī Ḥasan b. Muḥammad b. Aḥmad al-Tamīmī , known also under the name of al-Ḳāḍī al-Tāhartī (because he was for some time ḳāḍī of Tāhart), philologist, poet and man of letters of Ḳayrawān, where he died in 430/1038-9. He is remembered only for a risāla addressed to Abu ’l-Mug̲h̲īra Ibn Ḥazm [see ibn ḥazm ] in which he criticizes the Andalusians (text in Ibn Bassām, D̲h̲ak̲h̲īra . i, 111-3; al-Maḳḳarī, Analectes , ii, 108-9; 5- W. ʿAbd al-Wahhāb, al-Muntak̲h̲ab al-madrasī Cairo 1944, 64-6; Eng. tr. P. de Gayangos, The history of the Mohammedan dynasties in Spain, London 1840, i, 168-70…

, “those who apply reasoning”. This term originally denotes the Muʿtazila [ q.v.], and it is probable that they coined it themselves. It occurs in Ibn Ḳutayba, Taʾwīl Muk̲h̲talif al-Ḥadīt̲h̲ , passim; al-Masʿudī speaks of ahl al-baḥt̲h̲ wa ’ l-naẓar ; synonyms are ahl al-kalām (in al-S̲h̲āfiʿī) and al-mutakallimūn (in al-As̲h̲ʿarī). Later, ahl (or aşḥāb ) al-naẓar came to denote the careful scholars who held a sound, well-reasoned opinion on any particular question. See also naẓar . (Ed.)

, the common name in modern Arabic, Persian, Turkish, etc. for administration. The term appears to have acquired its technical significance during the period of European influence. Muslim administration is discussed in the articles on administrative departments and services ( bāb-i-ʿālī , bayt al-māl , barīd , dīwān , dīwān-i humāyūn , istīfāʾ , ḳalam ḳānūn , rawk, taḥrīr , etc.); on officers and functionaries ( ʿāmil , ʿamīd , daftardār , ḥād̲j̲ib , kâhya , k̲h̲āzin , mus̲h̲īr , mus̲h̲rif , mustawfī , nāʾib , nāẓir , raʾīs al-kuttab, s̲h̲ādd , wakīl , wāsiṭa , wazīr , etc.); on scribes ( kātib …

(a.), verbal noun of nat̲h̲ara “to scatter, spread abroad”, in the pre-modern Middle East, the showering of money, jewels and other valuables on occasions of rejoicing, such as a wedding, a circumcision, the accession of a ruler, the victorious return from a military campaign, the reception of a diplomatic envoy, recovery from illness, etc. It was thus in part one aspect of the general practice of largesse and present giving by superiors to inferiors [see hiba , [see inʿām , k̲h̲ilʿa ] but also an aspect of charity to the poor. On occasion, the whole of…

, name of the Adriatic in Arabic geographical works. (Ed.)

, the name of a family of Berber “physicians”, whose ancestor, Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad (d. 1070/1658-60) left the Sūs and settled at Fās; he must have used completely empirical methods, but nevertheless obtained significant results. Ibn S̲h̲akrūn [ q.v. in Suppl.] was the pupil of a certain Aḥmad b. Muḥammad Ādarrāḳ, who was probably the son of the above-mentioned person, but the best-known member of the family was this Aḥmad’s son, abu muḥammad ʿabd al-wahhāb b. aḥmad ( b. ca . 1077/1666, d. 28 Ṣafar 1159/22 March 1746), who was attached to Mawlāy Ismā…

(a.), the verbal noun from the form II verb kaffara “to declare someone a kāfir or unbeliever”. 1. General definition. From earliest Islamic times onwards, this was an accusation hurled at opponents by sectarians and zealots, such as the K̲h̲ārid̲j̲ites [ q.v.]; but a theologian like al-G̲h̲azālī [ q.v.] held that, since the adoption of kufr was the equivalent here of apostasy, entailing the death penalty [see murtadd ], it should not be lightly made ( Fayṣal al-tafriḳa bayn al-Islam wa ’l-zandaḳa , quoted in B. Lewis, The political language of Islam, Chicago-London 1988, 85-6). It ha…

(Ar.), sea and also large perennial river.— The articles which follow treat of the principal seas known to the Arabs, but it is convenient to note here that in Islamic cosmology, on the basis of a conception generally related on the authority of Kaʿb al-Aḥbār [ q.v.], the mountain Ḳāf [ q.v.], which encircles the terrestial sphere, is itselt surrounded by seven concentric intercommunicating seas; these seas bear respectively the following names: Nīṭas (or Bayṭas̲h̲), Ḳaynas (or Ḳubays), al-Aṣamm, al-Sākin, al-Mug̲h̲allib (or al-Muẓlim), al-Muʾan…

(a.), a term of Fāṭimid administrative usage, also called the Ṣāḥib al-Bāb , i.e. head chamberlain. He was equal in status to the Isfahsālār or Muḳaddam al-ʿAskar , the commander-in-chief of the army, and the two of them setded all matters of military organisation. According to al-Ḳalḳas̲h̲andī, Ṣubḥ , iii, 483, vi, 7-8, he was second in the civilian administrative hierarchy after the wazīr himself and could hear maẓālim [ q.v.] when the wazīr was pre-occupied. (Ed.) Bibliography See also W. Björkman, Beiträge zur Geschichte der Staatskanzlei im islamischen Ä gypten, Hamburg 1928, 98.

, muḥammad b. aḥmad b. muḥammad , poet and littérateur of the 4th/10th century whose origin is unknown. He seems to have undergone many vicissitudes, since he appears in the service of Sayf al-Dawla, of al-Ṣāḥib Ibn ʿAbbād and of the ruler of K̲h̲urāsān, where he met Abu ’l-Farad̲j̲ al-Iṣfahānī, and he also resided in Egypt, in the D̲j̲abal, and in Transoxania, at S̲h̲ās̲h̲. The surviving verses of this great traveller are occasional pieces without any great originality, but he seems also to have been the author of several epistles and books, in particular, of a Tuḥfat al-kuttāb fi ’l-rasā…