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[German Version] (Byblius; also Herennios Philo Byblos; c. 70 – 160 ce), Phoenician historian and grammarian. His writings include a Phoenician history (Φοινικικὴ ἱστορία/Φοινικικά; …

[German Version] I. Religious Studies Temptation is a theologoumenon of many religions, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. It arises in the presence of free will when evil makes its appearance as fascinating, enticing cajolery, often insinuating. There are various forms of temptation: by a deity, by human individuals, by demons, in a nontheistic con-¶ text, and even human temptation of a deity. Temptation is often interpreted as the work of a demonic power that takes on symbolic significance – for example Māra in Buddhism; cf. e.g. Saṃyutta-Nikāya 4; 23:11f.) Theistic religions debate whether God “tempts” (i.e. tests) individuals directly or only indirectly. The Qurʾān speaks of tempters like Šaiṭān (Satan) in paradise (sura 2:36; 7:20; 20:120) and al-Sāmirī, the creator of the golden calf (sura 20:85–97; Devil: X); hence overcoming temptation, which comes from Iblīs (Satan) and his demons, is a central religious concern (sura 4:119f.; 7:17; 16:63: 114). Many religions have accounts of a temptation of their founders by a personified power of evil before they begin their ministry: Jesus by the devil (see III below), the Buddha by Māra (“death” as attachment to the world of the senses) and his daughters (e.g. Aśvaghoṣa, Buddhacarita 13), Mahāvīra by various demons, Zarathustra by Angra Mainyu or Būiti (Vendidad 19). All these accounts serve as models for the faithful. It is impossible to rule out extensive dependence of Jesus’ temptation on the Indo-Iranian traditions, mediated through popular narratives, since we can demonstrate other distant borrowings of Indo-Iranian legends, especially in the late Hellenistic and Roman period, and worldly power as the substance of a savior’s temptation is alien to Judaism. Personifications of temptation are especially common in Christian, Buddhist, and other forms of monastic mysticism (St. Anthony). Related to the motif of temptation is the more general theme of challenges to faith, in which the “attraction” of evil is downplayed. Temptation can also be an expression of particular personal circumstances (Confucius,…

[German Version] I. Literary History 1. Unlike fairy tales, which are set in a fictional world that takes wonders for granted, tales (Ger. Sagen) and legends recount the irruption of miracles and wonders into the real world. Tales treat this irruption as a mysterious and terrifying experience, while legends embed it in a religiously structured explanatory context.…

[German Version] I. Terminology – II. Procedure – III. Limitations I. Terminology In the context of historical studies (J.G. Droysen, Rüsen), literary criticism (Ger. Literarkritik) is associated with source criticism; it is therefore among the regulative disciplines of history: heuristics (discovering historical material through exploration of a particular question), criticism (ascertaining what was the case, and when and where), and interpretation (placing facts ascertained by criticism in their historical context…

[German Version] (Mar 14, 1806, Behndorf, near Magdeburg – Apr 19, 1882, Berlin). After his parents’ death, Vatke attended school at the Franckesche Stiftungen (A.H. Francke) in Halle beginning in 1820; from 1824 he studied theology in Halle, Göttingen, and Berlin. His teachers included W. Gesenius, ¶ H. Ewald, J.W.A. Neander, and G.W.F. Hegel. In 1830 he was appointed to a lectureship at Berlin, where he served from 1837 to 1875 on the theological faculty as associate professor of biblical studies and philosophy of religion. His appointment…

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[German Version] I. History of Religions – II. Old Testament I. History of Religions The concept of a flood of gigantic proportions that destroys the whole world is attested in many cultures and their religious traditions. The starting-points were ¶ probably locally limited natural events that were stylized as occurrences of cosmic proportions. The following are the most important motifs of flood traditions: 1. An immense flood (often connected with additional …

[German Version] (Sep 16, 1828, Haarlem – Dec 10, 1891, Leiden) began studying theology in Leiden in ¶ 1846, became associate professor there in 1852 and professor of New Testament, encyclopedia, and methodology in 1855, also of ethics from 1860. He was professor of Old Testament and ethics from 1877 onward. In addition to his scholarly and church-political involvement (main proponent of “modern theology” in Holland), Kuenen made significant contributions above all to the literary and religious history of the OT (esp. Historisch-kritisch onderzoek naar het ontstaan en de verz…

[German Version] I. Religious Studies …

[German Version] (Dec 4, 1825, Brilon, Westphalia – Mar 3, 1900, Bonn). From 1843 to 1848, Reusch studied Catholic theology and philosophy at Bonn, Tübingen (J.E. v. Kuhn, K.J. v. Hefele), and Munich (I. v. Döllinger, J. v. Görres et al.); in 1848 he was ordained to the priesthood in Cologne. In 1854 he completed his Habilitation at Bonn, where he was appointed associate professor of Old Testament in 1858 and made full professor in 1861. His publications include a …