, a collective noun denoting all those who claim descent from Abū Bakr. In Egypt, the head of this family, the S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-Bakrī, has, since 1811, been the naḳīb of the descendants of the Prophet ( as̲h̲rāf ), and, since 1906, the s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-mas̲h̲āyik̲h̲ , that is to say, the s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ of all the religious orders. See RM M , iv, 241 ff.; L. Massignon, Annuaire du Monde musulman 4, 1954, 274.

, a Dervish order which, according to d’Ohsson, took its name from Pīr Abū Bakr Wafāʾī, who died in Aleppo in 902/1496 or 909/1503-4. According to Rinn, Marabouts et Khouan , 271, they are a branch of the S̲h̲ād̲h̲iliyya [ q.v.].

[see baḳriyya and ṣiddīḳī ].

, a nisba borne by members of the famed Egyptian family of s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ s of the Bakriyya Ṣūfī order [see al-bakrī b. abi ’l-surbūr and bakriyya ]; it related to their claimed descent from the first caliph Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīḳ [ q.v.]. (Ed.)

, Moroccan mystic ( ṣūfī ) claiming Idrīsid descent, born ca. 966/1559, died 992/1584. After studying for six years at the madrasas of Fās and in the meantime visiting leading Moroccan Ṣūfīs, he proceeded in 990/1582 to Egypt to meet the leader of the Bakriyya order, S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan al-Bakrī. Eventually Yūsuf arrived in Ḥaḍramawt and, in 1036/1627, at the age of seventy, he dictated there his Multaḳaṭ al-riḥla , an account of his journey from Morocco to Ḥaḍramawt, in which he gave the reasons for his departure to the East and his decision to settle in Ḥaḍramawt. Nearly three-q…

, Muḥammad Tawfīḳ b. ʿAlī b. Muḥammad , Egyptian religious dignitary. He was born in Cairo on 27 D̲j̲umādā II 1287/24 August 1870, and was appointed naḳīb al-as̲h̲rāf [ q.v.], s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ mas̲h̲āyik̲h̲ al-ṭuruḳ al-ṣūfiyya (head of the ṭarīḳas [ q.v.]), and head of al-Bakriyya [ q.v.] in January 1892 in succession to his deceased brother ʿAbd al-Bāḳī, obtaining life-membership of the mad̲j̲lis s̲h̲ūrā al-ḳawānīn (Legislative Council) and of the d̲j̲amʿiyya al-ʿumūmiyya (General Assembly) in that very same year. During the period in which he held the office of s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ mas̲h̲āyik̲h̲…

, an ancient place in the Middle Atlas region of Morocco which owed its existence to the foundation in the last quarter of the 10th/16th century of a zāwiya [ q.v.], a “cultural” centre meant for teaching the Islamic sciences and Arab letters, and at the same time spreading the doctrine of the S̲h̲ād̲h̲iliyya [ q.v.] order, more precisely the branch known as the D̲j̲azūliyya [see al-d̲j̲azūlī , abū ʿabd allāh muḥammad ], and also sheltering the needy and travellers. In 1048/1638, the zāwiya dilāʾiyya or bakriyya (from the founder’s name, S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Abū Bakr …

(or al-Fawṭī ), a Muʿtazilī of Baṣra, where he was the pupil of Abu ’l-Hud̲h̲ayl [ q.v.]. After having probably been a wandering propagator of Iʿtizāl (Ibn al-Nadīm, Fihrist , ed. Fück, in Prof. Muḥ. S̲h̲afīʿ presentation volume, Lahore 1955, 68-9), he went to Bag̲h̲dād during the caliphate of al-Maʾmūn and died there at a date not known exactly, but probably before 218/833. His personal doctrine, which had a certain influence on al-As̲h̲ʿarī [ q.v.], differs appreciably, accoiding to Ibn al-Nadīm ( op. cit.), from the teachings of the other Muʿtazila, but the data given by th…

, b. abī ’l-surūr , name of two Arab historians of the notable family of Egyptian s̲h̲ayk̲h̲s of the Bakriyya ṭarīḳa (of the S̲h̲ād̲h̲ilī order). 1. muḥammad b. abī ’l-surūr b. muḥammad b. ʿalī al-ṣiddīḳī al-miṣrī , d. 1028/1619. His works include, in addition to a universal history in two parts ( ʿUyūn al-Ak̲h̲bār , Nuzhat al-Abṣār , also abridged under the title of Tuḥfat (or Tad̲h̲kirat ) al-Ẓurafāʾ ), several histories of the Ottoman Turks ( Fayḍ al-Mannān , al-Durar al-At̲h̲mān fī Aṣl Manbaʿ Āl ʿUt̲h̲mān , and al-Minaḥ al-Raḥmāniyya with an appendix on Egypt entitled al-Laṭāʾif al-Rabb…

, a theological term used by Wāṣil b. ʿAṭāʾ [ q.v.] and the later Muʿtazila [ q.v.] for designating the salvational status ofthe mortal sinner ( fāsiḳ [ q.v.]). The word manzila alone is attested, in the technical sense of “salvational status”, in Ḥadīt̲h̲ (cf. Muttaḳī al-Hindi, Kanz al-ʿummāl , i, 28, no. 519) and, later than Wāṣil, in the K. al-ʿĀlim wa ’l-mutaʿallim which was probably composed by Abū Ḥanīfa’s pupil Abū Muḳātil Ḥafṣ b. Salm al-Samarḳandī in the second half of the 2nd century (cf. ed. Hyderabad 1349, 20, 11. 4 ff. and Schacht, in Oriens , xvii [1964], …

, Algerian Ṣūfī order ( ṭarīḳa ) called after Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Gas̲h̲tulī al-D̲j̲urd̲j̲urī al-Azharī Abū Ḳabrayn, who died in 1208/1793-4. It is a branch of the K̲h̲alwatiyya [ q.v.] and is said to have at one time been called Bakriyya after Muṣṭafā al-Bakrī al-S̲h̲āmī. At Nafṭa [ q.v.], in Tunisia, and some other places it is called ʿAzzūziyya after Muṣṭafā b. Muḥammad b. ʿAzzūz. Life of the founder. His family belonged to the tribe Ayt Smāʿīl, part of the Gas̲h̲tula confederation in the Ḳābiliyya D̲j̲urd̲j̲ura; having studied at his home, and th…

(a., pl. sad̲j̲ād̲j̲id , sad̲j̲ād̲j̲īd , sawād̲j̲id ), the carpet on which the ṣalāt [ q.v.] is performed. The word is found neither in the Ḳurʾān nor in the canonical Ḥadīt̲h̲; the occasional use of a floor-covering of some kind was, however, known at quite an early period. 1. Early tradition. In the Ḥadīt̲h̲ [ q.v.] we are often told how Muḥammad and his followers performed the ṣalāt on the floor of the mosque in Medina after a heavy shower of rain, so that their noses and heads came in contact with the mud (e.g. al-Buk̲h̲ārī, Ad̲h̲ān , bāb s 135, 151; Muslim, Ṣiyām , trads…

(Turkish: Halvetiyye), a highly ramified and widespread ṭarīḳa [ q.v.]. History and branches. The K̲h̲alwatiyya is mentioned as a branch of al-Abhariyya al-Zāhidiyya by Kamāl al-Dīn Muḥammad al-Ḥarīrī ( Tibyān , i, 343b), who gives as its founder ʿUmar al-K̲h̲alwatī (born in Lāhid̲j̲, D̲j̲īlān, died in Tabrīz, 800/1397). However, Muṣṭafā Kamāl al-Dīn al-Bakrī [ q.v.] stresses that ʿUmar’s s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ , Muḥammad b. Nūr al-Bālisī, who was called al-K̲h̲alwatī because of his frequent retreats, is the first in the K̲h̲alwativva silsila (cf. Muḥammad Ḥasanayn Mak̲h̲lūf al-ʿAdawī, Awrā…

, a Ṣūfī brotherhood of Central Asia. ¶ The movement of the K̲h̲wād̲j̲agān belongs to the proto-history of the Naḳs̲h̲bandiyya [ q.v.] order, which often combines the two groups as the K̲h̲wād̲j̲agān-Naḳs̲h̲bandiyya. This movement, whose first figure is Abū Yaʿḳūb Yūsuf Hamadānī (d. 535/1140), took over a Ṣūfī tradition going back to the Prophet through Bāyazīd Bisṭāmī, Salmān al-Fārisī and the caliph Abū Bakr. This Ṣūfī tradition was at first known as the Ṭarīḳat-i bakriyya (“Abū Bakr’s way”) or Ṭarīḳat-i Ṣiddīḳiyya , and then at the time of Bisṭāmī, as the Ṭayfūriyya …

, conventionally Touat , a region of the southwest of Algeria little known to the Mag̲h̲ribī historians. Ibn Baṭṭūṭa mentions laconically his passing through Tuwāt in 754/1353 ( Riḥla , iv, 444-7, tr. Gibb and Beckingham, iv, 975-7), and Ibn K̲h̲aldūn mentions it in his K. al-ʿIbar (tr. de Slane, Hist ., des Berbères , i), but these pieces of information are meagre. The spread of colonial power in Algeria brought little alteration, and until its colonisation in 1900, Tuwāt remained very little known. The etymology of the name …

(a.), the phenomenon of mysticism within Islam. It is the maṣdar of Form V of the radical ṣ-w-f indicating in the first place one who wears woollen clothes ( ṣūf ), the rough garb of ascetics and mystics. Other etymological derivations which have been put forward in Western and, especially, Islamic sources, are untenable. Hence a mystic is called ṣūfī or mutaṣawwif , colls, ṣūfiyya or mutaṣawwifa . 1. Early development in the Arabic and Persian lands. Already among the Companions of the Prophet Muḥammad there were persons who wanted more than just to strive after the out…

, the adherents of a doctrinal stance which originated at the same time and over the same question as K̲h̲ārid̲j̲ism and S̲h̲īʿism, but which did not survive beyond the 4th/10th century. Its history can be divided into four stages: 1. Loyalism. The stance originated in response to the killing of ʿUt̲h̲mān [ q.v.]. Had the rebels done right? The ʿUt̲h̲māniyya were those who denied it. ʿUt̲h̲mān had in their view remained a legitimate ruler whose life it had been wrong to take. “By God, ʿUt̲h̲mān was killed unjustly ( maẓlūman )” (al-Ṭabarī, i, 3434; cf. 3243.9-12…

, properly “abode of (the tribe of) Bakr”, the designation of the northern province of the D̲j̲azīra. It covers the region on the left and right banks of the Tigris from its source to the region where it changes from its west-east course to flow in a south-easterly direction. It is, therefore, the upper basin of the Tigris, from the region of Siʿirt and Tell Fāfān to that of Arḳanīn to the north-west of Āmid and Ḥiṣn al-Ḥamma (Čermük) to the west of Āmid. Yāḳūt points out that Diyār Bakr does not extend beyond the plain. Diyār Bakr is so called because it became, during the 1st/7th century…

, a purely and typically Arabic literary genre. The word is generally translated as “assembly” or “session” (Fr. “séance”), but this is an approximation which does not convey exactly the complex nature of the term. ¶ Semantic evolution of the term. The semantic study of this vocable for the period previous to the creation of the genre is complicated by the fact that the plural maḳāmāt , which is frequently used, is common to two nouns, maḳāma and maḳām [ q.v.]. Both are derived from the radical ḳ-w-m , which implies the idea of “to rise, to stand in order to p…

(late 1760s-1849), Ottoman governor-general and effective ruler of Egypt. He was known in his time and to his Ottoman milieu as Meḥmed ʿAlī Pas̲h̲a. In European sources, he was often referred to as the viceroy of Egypt or simply as the Pas̲h̲a. Assuming the title K̲h̲edive, which officially was only granted to his grandson Ismāʿīl in 1867, Muḥammad ʿAlī was Ottoman governor-general of Egypt from 1805 to 1848, when, owing to mental incapacity, the position was formally conferred on his son Ibrāhīm Pas̲h̲a [ q.v.]. His heirs ruled Egypt, with varying degrees of effective power, until 1952. …