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, Naṣīr al-Dīn , the founder of a short-lived dynasty ruling in Kālpī [ q.v.] in the first half of the 9th/15th century. He was the son of Malikzāda Fīrūz b. Tād̲j̲ al-Dīn Turk, the wazīr of G̲h̲iyāt̲h̲ al-Dīn Tug̲h̲luḳ II, who was killed with his sovereign in Dihlī in 791/1389; after that event he fled to Kālpī, his iḳṭāʿ , gave it the honorific name of Muḥammadābād, and “aspired to independence” ( dam az istiḳlāl mīzad ). This was not difficult to attain in the disrupted conditions of the Dihlī sultanate after Tīmūr’s sack and withdrawal, and Maḥm…

, called Sulṭān Dāniyāl in the histories, the youngest and favourite son of the Mug̲h̲al emperor Akbar, born Ad̲j̲mēr 2 D̲j̲umāda I 979/22 September 1571. In 1008/1599 he was appointed military governor of the Deccan, and after his conquest of the city of Aḥmadnagar (1009/1601) he was honoured by Akbar and given the province of K̲h̲āndēs̲h̲, fancifully named Dāndēs̲h̲ after him. He is described as well-built, good-looking, fond of horses, and skilful in the composition of Hindūstānī poems. He figures in Abu ’l-Faḍl’s lists of the grandees of the empire ( Āʾīn-i Akbarī …

, d. 740/1339, first Sultan of Madura [ q.v.]. A native of Kaythal in the Pand̲j̲āb, he is known from a well-inscription (cf. B. D. Verma, in Epigraphia Indica , Arabic and Persian Supplement , 1955-6, 109 ff.) to have been nāʾib-i iḳṭāʿ in the province of Maʿbar [ q.v.] in 725/ 1324; later he was appointed governor by Muḥammad b. Tug̲h̲luḳ (or, according to ʿIṣāmī, Futūḥ al-Salāṭīn , 449, was kotwāl [ q.v.] at Madura and usurped the government), but shortly after This, in 735/1335, he proclaimed his independence under the title of D̲j̲alāl al-(Dunyā wa ’l)-Dīn Aḥsan…

A district in Gud̲j̲arāt [ q.v.] in the present Bombay State, India, of about 1450 sq.m. and with a population of some 300,000; the Islamic population was about 20% of the total prior to partition in 1947, but much of this has since moved to Sind in Pakistān. The principal class of Muslims was Bohrā [see bohorās ]. Bharoč is also the name of the principal town of that district, Lat. 21°42′N., Long. 73° 2′E. It is first known as a town within the Mawrya dominions, and later (c. 150 A.D.) to have been in the hands of Parthian Sāhas; from the Middle Indian form bharugaccha- of the Sanskrit bhṛgukṣetra- …

, the third of the salāṭīn al-s̲h̲arḳ , the name given to the rulers of the state of D̲j̲awnpur [ q.v.], regnabat 804-44/1402-40. He and his elder brother Mubārak S̲h̲āh ‘Ḳaranful’, whom he succeeded on the D̲j̲awnpur throne, were the adopted sons of the eunuch Malik Sarwar, the first sultan, and they are generally supposed to have been Ḥabs̲h̲īs [ q.v.]. Ibrāhīm succeeded to a kingdom of considerable extent, from Koyl (later ʿAlīgaŕh) and It́āwā [ q.v.] in the west to Bihār and Tirhut [ qq.v.] in the east, an area of about the size of Austria. It was Ibrāhīm who did most to mak…

, a generally imprecisely defined region of India to the south and south-west of Dihlī, the broken country around Alwar, Tid̲j̲ārā, Bharatpur, Dīg, Rēwāŕī, Mathurā and Gurgāʾōn, “land of the Mēʾō” [ q.v.], robbers, marauders and cattle thieves. Punitive excursions under Iltutmis̲h̲, ca. 620/1223, and Balban as nāʾib of Nāṣir al-Dīn Maḥmūd in 646/1249 and 658/1260, had only a temporary effect, and Mēwāt was not effectively pacified and controlled until Balban’s first regnal year as sultan, 665/1267 (full account in Ḍiyāʾ al-Dīn Baranī, Taʾrīk̲h̲-i Fīrūz S̲h̲āhī …

, the name now commonly given to the ruins of the capital city of the Vid̲j̲ayanagara [ q.v.] empire, on the right bank of the Tungabhadrā river 60 km. north-west of Bellary. The name seems to be derived from the prominent temple to Pampāpati (Kannad́a h < Old Kann. p) in the bāzār area. The Vid̲j̲ayanagara empire is of importance for the Muslim world not only as an active Hindū power which defied its Muslim neighbours for over two centuries, but also for the evidence it offers of the progressive synthesis of certain aspects of Hindū and Muslim cul…

b. ʿAlī s̲h̲arīf al-Ḳurays̲h̲ī al-Nāgōrī , whose dates of birth and death are unknown, wrote his Ḳānūn-i Islām at the instigation of Dr. Herklots some time before 1832. He is said to have been “a man of low origin and of no account in ¶ his own country”, born at Uppuēlūru (Ellore) in Kistna District, Madras, and was employed as a muns̲h̲ī in the service of the Madras government. He was an orthodox Sunnī, yet tolerant towards the S̲h̲īʿas, who had considerable influence in south India in his time, learned yet objective in his approach…

1. — History. The city of Dihlī, situated on the west bank of the river D̲j̲amnā [ q.v.] and now spread out between 28° 30′ and 28° 44′ N. and 77° 5′ and 77° 15′ E., was the capital of the earliest Muslim rulers of India from 608/1211 (see dihlī sultanate ), and remained the capital of the northern dynasties (with occasional exceptions: Dawlatābād, Agra, and Lahore (Lāhawr), [ qq.v.], were the centres favoured by some rulers) until the deposition of Bahādur S̲h̲āh in 1858; from 1911 it became the capital of British India, and after 1947 of Independent India. The usual Romanized form of the nam…

, a small town about 40 km. east of Āt́ak, Pākistān, 33° 48′ N., 72° 44′ E., which forms a part of the ruins around the ancient Taxila. It is known as the site of a spring which has attracted legends of sanctity from Buddhist, Hindū, Muslim and Sikh sources, and in its form of the sacred tank ¶ of the Serpent King Ēlāpatra was described by the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang in the 7th century A.D. It is now known by Muslims as the spring of Bābā Walī, and by the Sikhs as that of Pand̲j̲ā Ṣāḥib (Pand̲j̲ābī pand̲j̲ā ‘group of five (sc. fingers)’, i.e., ‘hand’), from the shape of a mark on a rock from un…

i.—A small town in Uttar Pradēs̲h̲, India, 27° 32′ N., 80° 45′ E., 75 km. north of Lakhnaʾū (Lucknow) on the Barēlī road, now of small importance but in Mug̲h̲al times the headquarters of one of the five sarkār s of the sūba of Awadh (Abu ’l-Faḍl ʿAllāmī, Āʾīn-i Akbarī , Eng. tr. Jarrett, Bibl. Ind., ii, 93, 176). Under the kingdom of Awadh [ q.v.] it became the headquarters town of a niẓāmat ; but after the British annexation of Awadh its importance declined with the rise of Sītāpur 8 km. to the north. Before the partition of the Indian subconti…

, a town of the Indian Pand̲j̲āb, situated 29° 7′ N., 76° 0′ E., in the Hariyānā [ q.v.] region of which it was the old capital until supplanted by Ḥiṣār Fīrūza [ q.v.] in 757/1356. It is known from inscriptions that it was occupied by the Tomārs and Čawhāns before the Muslim conquest, and was perhaps occupied from Kus̲h̲āṇa times, 1st or 2nd century A.D.: certainly the old fort, to the north-east of the present town, is an extensive tell representing an accumulation of many cultural layers. Hānsī was already a major stronghold when Masʿūd, son of Maḥm…

, the name given in the Indian chronicles to the south-western region of Rād̲j̲āsthān [ q.v.]: approximately the region now known, from its principal town, as Udaypur (although the town of Udaypur [ q.v.] was not founded until 966/1559), hilly with considerable forest tracts, separated from its Rād̲j̲pūt neighbour Mārwāŕ on the west by the Aravallī hills, and bordered on the south by Gud̲j̲arāt, on the south-east and east by Mālwā, on the north-east by the Dihlī sultanate (see Map s.v. rād̲j̲āsthān ). The region is more celebrated for its defences agains…

, the name of many towns and cities in India (Skr. nagara “city”). Those of significance for Islam are as follows: 1. Nagar, familiar name locally for Aḥmadnagar [ q.v.], being even used on signposts. C.R. Singhal, Mint-towns of the Mughal emperors of India , Bombay 1953, 7, describes a coin of typical Aḥmadnagar fabric where the mint-name is simply Nagar. 2. Nagar, a large town in Karnāt́aka, some 55 miles west of S̲h̲imōgā, once a capital of local rād̲j̲ās , captured in 1176/1763 by Ḥaydar ʿAlī [ q.v.], and so for a short time known as Ḥaydarnagar; Ḥaydar ʿAlī ¶ established his principal ars…

, name given to the tract of country in the Indian Pand̲j̲āb to the north-west of Dihlī, surrounding the towns of Hānsī [ q.v.] and Ḥiṣār Fīrūza [ q.v.] in the present Ḥiṣār district and extending east into the Rohtak [ q.v.] district; it lies south of the Ghaggar stream—which partly coincides with the ancient Saraswatī river which once joined the Indus [see sindhu ], now little more than a monsoon drainage channel whose waters are lost in the Rād̲j̲āst̲h̲ān sands—and is traversed by Fīrūz S̲h̲āh Tug̲h̲luḳ’s West Ḏj̲amnā canal [for the history of this see references s.v. d̲j̲amnā …

, the name commonly given by Indian historians to a turbulent family of Tīmūrid descent, troublesome especially in the 10th/16th century, in the reign of the Mug̲h̲al emperor Akbar, to whom they were mostly sixth cousins, as descendants of ʿUmar S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Mīrzā, the second son of Tīmūr (Akbar was descended from D̲j̲alāl al-Dīn Mīrān S̲h̲āh. the third son of Tīmūr). Abu ‘l-Faḍl and Badāuʾnī refer to them as mīrzāyān , and Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī al-Dābir as awlād Mīrzā Muḥammad Tīmūr Sulṭān . There may be confusion in the texts when one of them is spoken of in th…

, S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ D̲j̲amāl al-Dīn Aḥmad , also called Ḳuṭb D̲j̲amāl al-Dīn, a Ṣūfī mystic of the Indian Čis̲h̲tiyya [ q.v.] order, b. 580/1184-5, d. in. Hānsī 659/1260-1. He was a descendant of the theologian and religious lawyer Abū Ḥanīfa, and was a senior k̲h̲alīfa of S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Farīd al-Dīn Masʿūd “Gand̲j̲-i S̲h̲akar” [ q.v.] during the time the latter spent at Hānsī [ q.v.]. He is said to have been the k̲h̲aṭīb of Hānsī when he joined Farīd al-Dīn, and to have resigned this post and its consequent material benefits as a necessary condition of his spiritual discipline. He is known as the aut…

(a.), literally “ranks, degrees” (sing. martaba ), a term applied especially in Muslim India to the “honours” or “dignities”, aṭbāl wa- ʿalamāt , drums and standards, borne by the sultan or conferred by him on the great amīrs (Ibn Baṭṭūṭa, iii, 106; tr. Gibb (1971), iii, 599), later elaborated (ibid., iii, 110; tr. iii, 601) as “standards, kettledrums, trumpets, bugles and reedpipes” as carried by two ¶ ships among the fifteen of the governor of Lāharī Bandar. The practice of Fīrūz S̲h̲ah’s troops marching with 90,000 cavalry under 180 marātib and nis̲h̲āna-yi har d̲j̲ins (ʿAfīf, Taʾrīk̲h…

( et́ājā ), a district in the south-west of Uttar Prades̲h̲, India, lying between 26° 21′ and 27° 1′. N., 78° 45′ E.; and also the principal town of that district, 26° 46′ N., 79° 1′ E., on the river D̲j̲amnā [ q.v.]. The common spelling of the name is Etawa; other forms are Etaya (Elphinstone), Itay (de Laet), and sometimes Int́āwa in the Muslim chronicles. Popular etymology connects the name with īnt́ āwā , “brick kiln”. The region of It́āwā was probably within the kingdom of Kanawd̲j̲ [ q.v.] at the time of the raid on that kingdom by Maḥmūd of G̲h̲azna in 409/1018, and again at …

, the eleventh Bahmanī dynast and the third of the line to rule from Bidar, 862/1458 to 865/1461. He was the eldest son of ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Aḥmad II, who designated him his heir shortly before his death, at the same time giving him s̲h̲rewd if idealistic advice about the management of the kingdom (Niẓām al-Dīn Bak̲h̲s̲h̲ī, Ṭabaḳāt-i Akbarī , Bibl. Ind. ed., Calcutta 1913, i, 421). Party faction was rife in the Deccan, and even before his accession, on rumours of ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Aḥmad’s death in 859/1455, the king’s brother-in-law D̲j̲alā…

(p.), “place of prayer”, in India an alternative name for ʿīdgāh , the open structure built usually to the west of a town, consisting solely of what in a mosque would be the western wall, with miḥrāb (s) and minbar and, essentially, within a spacious enclosure which should be capable of accommodating the entire adult male Muslim population; the wallstructure may stand at the western end of a large paved area ( ṣaḥn ), but there is usually no ḥawḍ for ablutions. The structure is used only for the celebration of the two ʿīd festivals ( ʿīd al-aḍḥā and ʿid al-fiṭr [ q.vv.]), and no special sanctity…

, a town in the Okhāmandal district in the north-west of the Kāt́hiāwād peninsula of Gud̲j̲arāt, India, associated in Hindū legend with the god Kris̲h̲na and hence considered to be of special sanctity by Hindūs. It is known also by the names of Dwārawatī and D̲j̲agat, and was notorious for its pirates until the 19th century. Under the name Bāruwī ( < dwārawatī ) it is referred to by al-Bīrūnī ( K. Taʾrīk̲h̲ al-Hind , tr. E. Sachau, London 1888, ii, 105 ff.). It was sacked by the Gud̲j̲arāt sultan Maḥmūd I “Begd́ā” in 877/1473 as a reprisal for an attack by pirates on the schol…

, the name given to the largest religious community of India, conquered by the Muslims in the 6th/12th century. Early Muslim knowledge about the religious belief of India was very small: and no wonder, for Hinduism is utterly different from Islam in most of its ways. It is essentially polytheistic, has no official scripture (although many sacred books), no canon, many different schools of belief and of philosophy and yet really no orthodoxy, and above all no prophecy; it tolerates the worship of…

, a leader, as Rāʾī C̀and Pūrbīya, of the Pūrbīya (= "eastern") Rād̲j̲pūts, with tribal possessions in the Čāndērī [ q.v.] district and hence feudatories of the sultans of Mālwā [ q.v.], who became prominent in Mālwā-Gud̲j̲arāt-Mēwār-Dihlī politics early in the 10th/16th century. The Mālwā succession had been fiercely contested after the death of Nāṣir al-Dīn S̲h̲āh Ḵh̲ald̲j̲ī in 916/1510, who had designated his third son, Aʿẓam Humāyūn, as his heir. He duly succeeded, as Maḥmūd S̲h̲āh Ḵh̲ald̲j̲ī II [ q.v.], with his elder brothers S̲h̲ihāb al-Dīn and Ṣāḥib Ḵh̲ān as active …

( Jaunpur ), city on the Gumtī in Uttar Pradesh, north India, lat. 25° 48′ N., long. 82° 42′ E., and the surrounding district. The city was founded in 760/1359 by Fīrūz S̲h̲āh Tug̲h̲luḳ [ q.v.], near the ancient Manāyč reduced by Maḥmūd of G̲h̲azni in 409/1018 and renamed Ẓafarābād by Ẓafar K̲h̲ān, its governor under G̲h̲iyāt̲h̲ al-Dīn Tug̲h̲luḳ after 721/1321. Muslim historians derive the name Ḏj̲awnpur from Ḏj̲awna S̲h̲āh, Muḥammad b. Tug̲h̲luḳ’s title before his accession; but D̲j̲amanpur is known as a by-form of the name (? connexion with Ḏj̲awn=D̲j̲amnā, [ q.v.]; Skt. Yamunendrapura…

, name of a fortified town in northern Gud̲j̲arāt, 100 km. north-east of Aḥmadābād, and of its surrounding territory, largely mountainous. The former rād̲j̲ā s of Īdar were in the 8th/14th century a constant thorn in the flesh of the first governors in Gud̲j̲arāt of the Dihlī sultanate, and military action was almost always required to collect the tribute the governors exacted. After Gud̲j̲arāt became an independent sultanate Aḥmad S̲h̲āh I was similarly troubled, and the strength of Īdar, so near…

( a) the name of a city in the Deccan (Dakhan) of India, situated 17° 22′ N., 78° 27′ E., now the capital city of the Indian state of Āndhra Pradēs̲h̲, and formerly the capital successively of the later Ḳuṭb S̲h̲āhī kings of Golkond́ā, of a Mug̲h̲al ṣūba after Awrangzīb’s conquest of the Deccan, of the Niẓām, and of the state of Ḥaydarābād after the independence of India; ( b) the name of a former state of the Indian Union, now absorbed within the provinces of Āndhra Pradēs̲h̲, Mahārās̲h̲tra, and Mysore (Mahisur); formerly the territory of H.E.H. (‘His ¶ Exalted Highnes…

(Deccan), locally often spelt Ḳand̲h̲ār, Kand̲h̲ār to distinguish it from its illustrious Afg̲h̲ān namesake, is a plains fort and the surrounding taʿalluḳ , mainly agricultural, known to have been part of the Bahmanī [ q.v.] dominions, from whom it later passed to the ʿĀdil S̲h̲āhīs. It seems, however, to have known previous Muslim occupation, since the main gate bears an inscription of Muḥammad b. Tug̲h̲luḳ [ q.v.] ( EIM 1919-20, 16-7) and was presumably occupied by him on his expedition to south India. The fort, 25 miles south-west of Nandeŕ, is remarkable for i…

, a Mongol noble of Lāhawr (Lahore), whose brief rise to power in that city in about 735/1335 was symptomatic of the general resentment felt at Muḥammad b. Tug̲h̲luḳ’s rule. When the sultan had left Dihlī for the south of India to put down the ¶ rebellion of D̲j̲alāl al-Dīn Aḥsan [ q.v.] Hūlāgū killed Tātār Ḵh̲ān, governor of Lāhawr, appointed Gul Čandra (?) the Khokar his minister, and proclaimed his independence. On the news reaching Dihlī, the wazīr K̲h̲wād̲j̲a D̲j̲ahān, who had not yet followed the sultan south, marched to Lāhawr with an army and put down the rebellion…

(Persian, lit. “be distant”), the mace or club used as an emblem of military dignity; in Persian and Turkish usage the dūrbās̲h̲ can also be the functionary who carries the mace [see čāʾūs̲h̲ , sarhang ]. The čūbdārs described by Niẓām al-Mulk, Siyāsat-nāme , ch. xxxix, who seem to have been similar functionaries, carried gold and silver staffs; ʿAwfī, D̲j̲āmiʿ al-ḥikāyāt (passage cited by M. Fuad Köprülü, Bizans müesseselerin Osmanlı müesseselerine tesiri hakkında bazı mülâhazalar , in Türk Hukuk ve Iktisat Tarihi Mecmuası , Istanbul 1931, 213; Ital. tr., Alcune osservazioni …

, a district of India to the east of Dihlī lying between the Rāmgangā and S̲h̲āradā rivers and hence the eastern part of the tract which, in ¶ the first third of the 18th century, came to be known as Rohilkhand [ q.v.]; but in Mug̲h̲al times the name seems to have been applied loosely to the whole of that tract. The name ( Katahr in the oldest Muslim sources, but recte Kaṭahr ) is variously derived: W. Crooke, Tribes and castes of the North West Provinces and Oudh , Calcutta 1896, iii, 176, takes it as the name of the common soil of the tract, “a brownish loam …

, the Ganges (also Gang , in the Muslim historians of India), the principal river of Upper India [see hind ] which rises in the snows of the Himālaya in the district of Gaŕhwāl at an altitude of some 3100 m., flows through the present provinces of Uttar Prades̲h̲, Bihār and Bengal, and falls in the Bay of Bengal after a course of about 2500 km., the last 500 km. through the Bengal delta. Above the delta it receives successively the waters of the Rāmgangā, Yamunā (Ḏj̲amnā. [ q.v.]), Gōmatā, Gōgrā, Sōn, Gandak and Kōsī; above the Ḏj̲amnā confluence at Prayāg (Allāhābād, [ q.v.]) it is fordable. The…

, a ruined city of Gud̲j̲arat in Western India, Lat. 22° 29′ N., long. 73° 32′ E., about 78 miles south-east of Aḥmadābād, taken by the Gūd̲j̲arāt sulṭān Maḥmūd S̲h̲āh I ‘Begadā’ on his conquest (889/1484) of the adjoining stronghold ¶ of Pāwāgaŕh, which had successfully resisted Aḥmad S̲h̲āh I in 821/1418. The Begadā occupied Čampānēr forthwith, building a city wall with bastions and gates (called Ḏj̲ahānpanāh; inscription EIM 1929-30, 4-5), and a citadel ( bhādar ). He renamed the city Maḥmūdābād, and it was his favourite residence until his deat…

, also less correctly darsan, a Sanskrit word ( darśana , from the root dṛś “see”) meaning “showing, being visible”; hence, the ceremonial appearance of a king to his subjects. This Hindū practice was adopted by the Mug̲h̲al emperor Akbar ( Āʾīn-i Akbarī , i, 73) and his immediate successors. The English traveller Coryat records that Ḏj̲ahāngīr in Āgra used to present himself three times a day from a canopied window. The failure of S̲h̲āhd̲j̲ahān to appear during his illness at the end of 1067/September 1657 led to rumours of his death. The practice of dars̲h̲an was …

, a town, taḥṣīl and district in the northern plains of the Pākistān Pand̲j̲āb lying between the rivers Ḏj̲ehlam and Čanāb. The district is thought to have once formed part of the ancient Gurd̲j̲ara kingdom; but it is not specifically referred to in Islamic historical writing until the time of Bahlōl Lodī (855-94/1451-89) when the town of Bahlōlpur, 36 km. north-east of Gud̲j̲rāt town, was founded; the settlement of the district was continued by S̲h̲īr S̲h̲āh in the middle of the 10th/16th century, and completed by Akbar with the refounding of Gud̲j̲rāt town. There seem to have been at …

, a town and district in the north of Mysore state in India on the western borders of what is known as “the Deccan” (Dakkhan [ q.v.]); the town is situated at 17° 21′ N., 76° 51′ E. Of some antiquity in the Hindū period, it formed part of the domains of the Kākatīyas of Warangaḷ before the Islamic conquest. It was annexed for the Dihlī sultanate by Ulug̲h̲ Ḵh̲ān, the future Muḥammad b. Tug̲h̲luḳ, early in the 8th/14th century, to pass first to the Bahmanī dynasty on its establi…

, the national language of the Republic of India, is now generally regarded as that form of the central north Indian speech which draws its erudite vocabulary from Sanskrit and its culture from Hinduism, and for literary purposes as including not only the standard dialect (Khaŕī bolī) but also the eastern Awadhī, the central Brad̲j̲, and the bardic poetry of Rād̲j̲āsthān [see also hind , Languages]. Formerly, and as late as the 19th century, it was also used to describe the speech of north Indian Muslims, those of Hind as opposed to Dakhan , the speech of the Hindūs being distinguished as Hindaw…

, an ancient town of India, in lat. 28°3′N. and long. 76°10′E., in the modern Haryana State, some 80 miles south-west of Dihlī. It was probably (Ishwari Prasad, Life and times of Humayun , 95) the birthplace of S̲h̲īr S̲h̲āh, his family having been associated with the place for some time. But Nārnawl has much older Islamic associations, with the inscription at the dargāh of S̲h̲āh Wilāyat showing that the saint was living here in and before 531/1137, i.e. over fifty years before the Muslim conquest of Dihli; his dargāh shows signs of the pre-Muslim style of cofferedroof construction…

, a region of west-central India lying to the north-west of the Deccan [see dakhan ], the upper valley of the river Tāptī (also called Tāpī), and the surrounding plain and forest country bounded on the north by the Satpuŕā hills and the river Narbadā, on the west separated from mainland Gud̲j̲arāt ¶ [ q.v.] by the northern ranges of the Western G̲h̲āt́s, on the south by the Sātmalā hills which separate it from the Deccan tableland, and on the south-west by the Laling and Gālnā hills which divide it from the Nāsik district of Mahārās̲h̲t́ra. There i…

, an ancient townoflndiain west K̲h̲āndēs̲h̲ [ q.v.; Map], situated in lat. 21°22′N., long. 74°4′E., in the valley of the River Tapti and formerly an important trade centre. As Nandigara it is said to have been founded by Nanda Gawlī, a local tribal chief, and it is asserted that it remained in his family “until conquered by the Muhammadans under Muin-ud-din Chishti” ( IGI 2, xviii, s.v. 362-3, Nandurbar ) ; this sounds improbable, and perhaps refers to an early Ṣūfī settlement. Its possession seems to have changed at various times between Gud̲j̲arāt and K̲h̲āndēs…

, a mixed Indian tribe of largely north-eastern Rad̲j̲put stock, a branch of whom were converted to Islam in the mid-8th/14th century. Their conversion seems to have been nominal, as they are described as offering animal sacrifices to a mother-goddess, worshipping at shrines of the Hindū god of the homestead Bhūmiyā, and following the Pačpiriyā (Pānč Pīr [ q.v.]), especially Sālār Masʿūd, whose banner was an object of their devotion at the s̲h̲ab-i barāt (eve of 14 S̲h̲aʿbān), as well as the Ḵh̲wād̲j̲a Ṣāḥib of Ad̲j̲mēr (Muʿīn al-Dīn Čis̲h̲tī [ q.v.]); they celebrated Hindū festivals…

, Mahārad̲j̲ā ot Amber, outstanding general of the Mug̲h̲al armies under Akbar, later governor of Mug̲h̲al provinces. He was born in 1607 V.S. = 975/1550, the son of Bhagwant Dās, eldest son and heir apparent of the reigning Mahārād̲j̲ā Bhārah Mali, a Rād̲j̲pūt [ q.v.] of the Kaččhwāha clan; the Muslim sources (Niẓām al-Dīn, Badāʾūnī, Firis̲h̲ta, Abu ’l-Faḍl, and D̲j̲ahāngīr in his Tūzuk ) garble the names and confuse Man Singh’s parentage, but there seems no reason to doubt the contemporary Rād̲j̲pūt records. After a young martial tra…

, properly the Kanarese (Kannadá) speaking district of southern India, Sanskrit karnāṭaka the word seems to be derived from Dravidian roots meaning “black country”, i.e., the country with the “black cotton soil” which characterizes the south Deccan plateau. The region is approximately that of the modern Mysore (Mahisur) state; but it was already applied in mediaeval times to part of the Telugu-speaking region as well, as in the time of the Vid̲j̲ayanagara [ q.v.] kingdom. After the Deccan confederacy had defeated the Vid̲j̲ayanagara forces at the battle of Tālīkot́a …

ruler of Mālwā [ q.v.] from 808/1405 to 835/1432. He is first mentioned as Alp K̲h̲ān, the eldest son of Dilāwar K̲h̲ān [ q.v.], by Firis̲h̲ta, who represents him as ambitious for Mālwā’s independence from Dihlī and resentful of his father’s homage to Maḥmūd K̲h̲ald̲j̲i of Dihlī when the latter was a fugitive in Dhār from the Tīmūrid invasion in 801/1398; indeed, during Maḥmūd’s presence at Dhār he withdrew from the court to Mānd́ū [ q.v.] where he put in order the fortifications of the old Paramāra stronghold, and after Maḥmūd’s return to Dihlī in 804/1401 he encourag…

, the usual modern Muslim spelling of the Indian river which rises in Tehrī in the Himālaya and falls into the Ganges at Allāhābād. Generally called Jamnā (older Jumna) on western maps, its Sanskrit name Yamunā has been largely re-adopted in modern India; it was known to Ptolemy as Διαμούνα, to Arrian as ’Ιωβαρής, and to Pliny as Iomanes the spellings Gemini (Roe) and Gemna (Bernier) occur among early European travellers. Early Muslim historians of India refer to it as . Its depth and width have made it a natural frontier in the division of territory in north India, between …

, commonly called Gurū Nānak , Hindū religious reformer, born in the village of Talwandī some 50 km/30 miles south-west of Lāhawr, in 874/1469, some half a century after Kabīr [ q.v.] and died in 945/1538; there is much in common between the two teachers, both in the rejection of formal Hinduism and in the acceptance of ideas derived from Islam, especially an uncompromising monotheism. The Talwandī district was well forested, and the young Nānak is said to have resorted often to the religious recluses who had setded there, Hi…

, a fortified town of the Deccan [see dakhan ], 17 53′ N., 76 57′ E., about 37 miles west of Bīdar [ q.v.]. In the 4th/10th and 5th/11th centuries, it was the capital of the Late Western Čālukya rād̲j̲ās, passing later to the Yādavas of Devagiri (= Dawlatābād, [ q.v.]); after the foundation of the Bahmanī [ q.v.] dynasty at Devagiri, Kalyāni was annexed as one of the strongholds on their northern borders; but there had presumably been a previous ¶ Muslim conquest of the town since an inscription is preserved of a d̲j̲āmiʿ masd̲j̲id founded by Ulug̲h̲ K̲h̲ān (later su…

, a hill-fort in the Barār region of ¶ India [see berār ], in lat. 21°15′N. and long. 77°4′E., in the former Ḥaydarābād native state (now in Maharās̲h̲tra State), at the southernmost end of the Satpura hills. The fortress is presumably pre-Muslim, since Firis̲h̲ta ( Guls̲h̲an-i Ibrāhīmī ), states that it was restored and repaired by Aḥmad S̲h̲āh Bahmanī between 828-31/1425-8, and the earliest buildings there appear to be of the Bahmanī period, although later the fort passed into ʿImād S̲h̲āhī [ q.v.] hands. It played an important role in the warfare of the rulers in the Decca…

The Elurā (Ellora) caves, near Dawlatābād [ q.v.], appear in the history of Muslim India only as the scene of the capture of the Gud̲j̲arāt princess Deval Devī, the future bride of Ḵh̲iḍr Ḵh̲ān [ q.v.], for ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Ḵh̲ald̲j̲ī by Alp Ḵh̲ān. who had given his forces leave to visit the cave temples (Firis̲h̲ta, Lucknow lith., i, 117). These caves were justly famous and were described by some early travellers, e.g., Masʿūdī, iv, 95, copied with much distortion of names by Ḳazwīnī, cf. Gildemeister, Scriptorum Arabutn de rebus Indicis , text 79, trans. 221; Musl…

, in the histories also Gāwīl , Gāwīlgaŕh , a fortress “of almost matchless strength” (Abu ’l-Faḍl, Āʾīn -i Akbarī , Eng. tr. Jarrett, ii, 237) in Berār, Central India, lat. 21° 20′ N., long. 77° 18′ E., seven kos (about 25 km.) north-west of Eličpur (Iličpur [ q.v.]). According to Firis̲h̲ta the fortress was built by Aḥmad S̲h̲āh Walī [see bahmanīs ] in 829/1425-6; but from its name it appears to have been a former stronghold of the Gāwalī chiefs, and it is more likely that Aḥmad S̲h̲āh merely strengthened the fortifications during t…

, a town in the Indian state of Rajasthan, some 75 miles south of D̲j̲odhpur on the left bank of the Sukrī river. Although the troops of ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn K̲h̲ald̲j̲ī had passed through D̲j̲ālor on their return from the conquest of Gud̲j̲arāt in 696/1297, it was not then occupied by them. In Ḏj̲umādā I 705/December ¶ 1305, however, that king sent ʿAyn al-Mulk, governor of Multān, on an expedition to D̲j̲ālor, Ud̲j̲d̲j̲ayn and Čandērī; he was opposed by an army of 150,000 Hindūs on his entry into Mālwā, and his victory over them, which brought Ud̲j̲d̲j̲ayn, D̲h̲ār, Mānd́ū, and Čandērī [ qq.v.] into M…

, term used in India for those African communities whose ancestors originally came to the country as slaves, in most cases from the Horn of Africa, although some doubtless sprang from the slave troops of the neighbouring Muslim countries. The majority, at least in the earlier periods, may well have been Abyssinian, but certainly the name was applied indiscriminately to all Africans, and in the days of the Portuguese slave-trade with India many such ‘Ḥabs̲h̲īs’ were in fact of the Nilotic and Bantu races. There is little detailed information concerning the numbers, the status an…

, Urdū and Hindī word for step-well, of which there are two main types m India, the northern and the western. The northern variety is the simpler, consisting essentially of one broad flight of stone steps running from ground level to below the waterline, the whole width of the site; subsidiary flights may run opposite and at right angles to these below water-level, thus constricting the cistern itself into successively smaller squares, and these may be supplemented by cross-flights reducing the …

, also Hindūstānī , Hindostāni , is or has been used in India, confusingly, to mean at least three different forms of language, the first two of which are common. i.—As a synonym for Urdū [ q.v.] as spoken in North India; i.e., the Muslim speech of Hindustān as opposed to the Deccan; antonym Dakhnī. ii.—As a name for that speech which is the common denominator of Urdū and Hindī [ q.v.], coloured neither by recondite loanwords from Persian nor by loanwords from Sanskrit: the sort of language in which a Muslim villager might converse with a Hindū villager, and vice versa; in this sense, also the …

, The D̲j̲ayn (Jain) community (followers of Mahāvīra, called the Jina) was much more widely distributed over the Indian sub-continent at the time of the Muslim conquest than in later times, as is shown by the re-utilization of D̲j̲ayn material in early Islamic building. Although they were fairly widespread in the Deccan, their particular stronghold ¶ was peninsular Gud̲j̲arāt. Allusions to the D̲j̲ayns in earlier histories have probably been obscured by their being not distinguished from their Hindū neighbours and described with them as “unbeliever…

, a province of India on the north-west of its coastline, lying east of the Raṇ of Kaččh [ q.v.] and broadly divided into Mainland Gud̲j̲arāt and Peninsular Gud̲j̲arāt (Kāt́hīāwāŕ, the ancient Sawrās̲h̲t́ra, modern Sōrat̂h). Mainland Gud̲j̲arāt is approximately the area of the plains in the lower reaches of the rivers Sābarmatī, Mahī, Narbadā and Tāptī, bounded north by the Mārwāŕ desert, east by the line of hills running south-east from Ābū to the Vindhyas. It takes its name (Sanskrit Gurjarātra ) from the widespread Gūd̲j̲ar (Skt. Gurjara ) tribe, who, it ha…

, a port of India, with an island fort and two creeks forming a harbour, about 60 miles/90 km. north of Bombay. The large village of Kēlvē on the opposite bank of one creek is now incorporated with it in one municipality named Kēlvē-Māhīm, which distinguishes it from the suburb of Māhīm on Bombay island. The name is also spelt Mahīm and, in Bahmanī records, Mahāʾim. It was known to have been included in the possessions of the Dihlī sultanate in the mid-8th/14th century, from which it passed to the Gud̲j̲arāt sultanate, of which it became the southernmost port …

, younger son of the governor of Bengal under S̲h̲īr S̲h̲āh, Sulaymān ¶ Kararānī, who later asserted his independence, was raised to the Bengal throne in 980/1572 by the Afg̲h̲ān nobles who had deposed his elder brother Bāyazīd. Intoxicated by a sense of power he defied the Mug̲h̲al emperor Akbar and attacked his outpost at G̲h̲āzipur in 982/1574. Munʿim K̲h̲ān [ q.v.], sent to oppose him, occupied his capital at T́ānd́ā and compelled him to retreat into Uŕisā; he counterattacked at the important battle of Tukarōʾī [ q.v.] (= Mug̲h̲almārī), but when Mug̲h̲al reinforcements arrived…

, ancient fort in India situated in 13° 5′ N., 75° E., in the modern state of Karnāt́aka; together with Rāyčūr [ q.v.], it formed a principal defence of the Rāyčūr dōʾāb , i.e. that between the rivers Kris̲h̲na and Tungabhadra, that continuous bone of contention between the Hindū kingdom of Vid̲j̲ayanagara [ q.v.] and the Deccan sultanates. The date of its foundation is unknown, but it seems to have passed from the possession of the Yādava rulers of Dēwgir [see dawlatābād ] to the Kākatīya kings of Warangal, and from the appearance of the cyclopean mason…

, a former town, now no bigger than a village, 22 miles/32 km. west of Patnā [ q.v.] in Bihār state, India, by the junction of the rivers Sōn and Ganges (it was reported to be at the junction in 1722, 3 miles/5 km. south of it by 1812, 7 miles /10 km. south by 1907); it had therefore some strategic and mercantile advantage, and was one of the earliest and most important sites of Muslim colonisation in this part of India. By Mug̲h̲al times, it had become the chief town of a pargana of some 80,000 bīghas [see misāḥā 2. India] in the ṣūba of Bihār ( Āʾīn-i Akbarī , tr. Jarrett, Calcut…

(earlier English spelling, now discarded, “Muttra”), an Indian city lying between Dihlī and Āgrā, of considerable antiquity and of high reputation in India as a place of high religious sanctity for Hindūs and, formerly, for D̲j̲ayns and Buddhists also; it was already a place of some renown when it became the eastern of the two Kus̲h̲āna capitals. It is, surprisingly, not mentioned in the Ḥudūd al-ʿālam , and only incidentally by al-Bīrūnī, although for Ptolemy it had been Μόδουρα τῶν Θηῶν. Its great reputation led to its being plundered b…

, a small town in the former ʿUt̲h̲mānābād district of Ḥaydarābād State, situated in 17°49′N., 76°29′E., now in Mahāras̲h̲t́ra; its fort, standing above the ravine of the Bōrī river, is one of the best fortified strongholds in the Deccan. The name also appears as Naldurg, perhaps the better form ( durg = Skr. durga “ fort “). It does not figure in the Deccan campaign of Muḥammad b. Tug̲h̲luk, and so probably came into Bahmanī possession after the imperial forces had withdrawn, in the late 8th/14th century; its stone fortifications, which appear to be …

, once a powerful town in Uttar Prades̲h̲, northern India, 26 8′ N., 79 45′ E. The old town and fort stand on clay cliffs overlooking the river Ḏj̲amnā [ q.v.]; there is a modern town to the south-east of the old one, which has some commercial importance and where a fine quality paper is still made by hand. The town was traditionally founded by a rād̲j̲ā of Kannawd̲j̲ in the 4th century A.D., and fell into Muslim hands in the first conquest in 593/1196. The high fort, walled on three sides and defended on the fourth by the cliffs and rive…

(a.), transport. 1. In the central Islamic lands and North Africa. See for this ʿaraba ; barīd ; d̲j̲āmūs in Suppl.; faras ; fīl ; ibil ; kārwān ; k̲h̲ān ; mawākib ; milāḥa ; safīna ; tid̲j̲āra . 2. In India. Travel on foot is obviously such an everyday occurrence between village and village that it receives scant mention in the texts; pilgrimages might be made on foot entirely, for pietistic reasons, such as Akbar’s to the tomb of Muʿīn al-Dīn Čis̲h̲tī from Āgrā to Ad̲j̲mēr, but generally foot-journeys are the accompaniment to a baggag…

, the third ruler of the Niẓām S̲h̲āhī sultanate of Aḥmadnagar, reg . 961-72/1554-65. He was the eldest son of Burhān I Niẓām S̲h̲āh, whose example he followed in adopting the S̲h̲īʿa forms of worship (for the political implications of this in the Deccan see niẓām s̲h̲āhīs ); he succeeded him as al-Muʾayyad min ʿind Allāh Ḥusayn S̲h̲āh (regnal title from Burhān-i maʾāt̲h̲ir ; no coins of this reign are known) without difficulty, having been able to remove other possible claimants from Aḥmadnagar city during his father’s lifetine, but w…

, title of high dignitaries in various sultanates of India, notably the sultanate of Dihlī, the Bahmanids, and the sultanate of Madura. It seems to have first been used during the time of Muḥammad b. Tug̲h̲luḳ (724-52/1324-51), gradually replacing ṣadr-i ʿālī as the honorific title of the wazīr (I. H. Qureshi, The administration of the sultanate of Dehlī4 , Karachi 1958, 85, with further references); the title was later accorded to other very high officials. Many such officials are known to history by this title (sometimes qualified by a nisba or laḳab ) rather th…

, Mug̲h̲al prince, the third son (neglecting infant deaths), of the emperor Bābur [ q.v.], full brother of Kāmrān Mīrzā [ q.v.] and halfbrother of the emperor Humāyūn [ q.v.] and Hindāl Mīrzā [ q.v.], born 922/1516 in camp, as his sobriquet indicates, died 965/1558. He received his first military command at the age of 12, during Bābur’s eastern campaigns beyond the Ganges. After Humāyūn’s succession in 937/1530, Kāmrān was assigned Kandahar, but left ʿAskarī in command there when he moved to attack Humāyūn’s possessions in Lāhawr; but a co…

, a province of India lying between 23° 48ʹ and 27° 31ʹ N. and 83° 20ʹ and 88° 32ʹ E., bounded by Uttar Prades̲h̲ on the west, Nepāl on the north, Bengal and East Pakistan on the east and Orissa on the south; area, with Čhotā Nāgpur, 67,164 sq.m., population 38,784,000. The dialects of the predominantly Hindū population, Bihjpurī, Maithilī and Māgahī, are referred to as Bihārī, and are more akin to Bengali than to Hindī; the latter is, however, the official language of administration and educati…

, town and old fort in north-central India, 24° 42′ N., 78° 9′ E., on a tableland overlooking the Betwā valley on the east. Early references by al-Bīrūnī (421/1030) and Ibn Baṭṭūṭa do not mention the fort and probably relate to a site some 15 km. north-north-west known now as Būŕhī [Urdū, ‘old’] Čandērī; here there are ruined Islamic fortifications among Hindū and Ḏj̲ayn remains, probably of the early 8th/14th century, for although the city fell in 649/1251 to G̲h̲iyāt̲h̲ al-Dīn Balban, then nāʾib of Nāṣir al-Dīn, whose aim was the seizure of booty and ca…

( ca. 949-1033/ ca. 1542-1624) (the sobriquet occurs also in the Turkī form kokaltas̲h̲ or kokaldas̲h̲ , “foster-brother”), the son of the Mug̲h̲al Emperor Akbar’s wet-nurse D̲j̲īd̲j̲ī Ānaga, who rose to prominence in the Mug̲h̲al court, army and administration. His exact date of birth is not recorded, but it must have been within a month or two of Akbar’s in 949/1542; his father was S̲h̲ams al-Dīn Aḥmad G̲h̲aznawī, who had been advanced to favour after saving Humāyūn’s life in the river c…

, the main Indo-Aryan language [see hind. iii. Languages] spoken by some 40 million in Bombay and the surrounding state of Mahārās̲h̲t́rā. It differs from the “central” Hindī-Urdū language especially by its retention of the three genders of Old Indo-Aryan, by retroflex - n- and - l- consonants, by the presence of a past tense with - l- infix, and by a vocabulary more dependent on Sanskrit than on Arabic and Persian. As the chief language of Barār and the north-west Deccan, it was the regular demotic language for the populations of the old Niẓām S̲h̲āh…

With the exception of the coinage [see sikka ] and a very few ceramic fragments (a few described in J. Ph. Vogel, Catalogue of the Dehli museum of archaeology, Calcutta 1908; for the pottery fragments of the ʿĀdilābād excavations see H. Waddington, in Ancient India , i, 60-76), the only body of material for the study of the art of the Dihlī sultanate is monumental. Most of the ¶ monuments are in Dihlī itself and are described s.v. dihlī . The remainder are mostly described under the appropriate topographical headings, and are listed here in more or less chronological order. The first major und…

, a town situated in 19°9′N., 77°20′E., a former district headquarters in Ḥaydarābād State, now in Mahārās̲h̲t́ra, on the north bank of the River Godāvarī. Once a fort of the Kākatīya dynasty, it was conquered early in the 8th/14th century by ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn K̲h̲ald̲j̲ī [see dihlī sultanate ], passing through Tug̲h̲luḳ hands to the Bahmanīs; on the disintegration of the Bahmanī state it passed to the Ḳuṭb S̲h̲āhīs of Golkond́ā, forming a defence on their north-east frontier with the Niẓām S̲h̲āhīs of Aḥmadnagar, and apparently was later in the …

, nom d’un district et d’une ville du Gud̲j̲arāt [ q.v.], actuellement de l’État de Bombay (Inde). Le district a une superficie d’environ 3 850 Km2 (1450 milles carrés) et une population de quelque 300 000 âmes; les Musulmans représentaient environ 20% du total avant le partage de 1947, mais, depuis, beaucoup ont rejoint le Sind (Pākistān). La principale classe de Musulmans était celle des ¶ Bohrā [voir Bohorās]. — Bharoč (lat. 21º 42’ Nord, long. 73º 2’ Est), principale ville de ce district, est tout d’abord connue comme faisant partie des possessions Mawrya, et pl…

troisième des salāṭīn al-s̲h̲arḳ (nom donné aux souverains de l’État de Ḏj̲awnpur [ q.v.]), qui régna de 804 à 844/1402-40. Il était, ainsi que son frère aîné Mubārak S̲h̲āh «Ḳaranful», à qui il succéda sur le trône de Ḏj̲awnpur, le fils adoptif du premier sultan, l’eunuque Malik Sarwar, et on pense généralement qu’ils étaient des Ḥabs̲h̲is [ q.v.]. Ibrāhīm se trouva à la tête d’un royaume aussi vaste que l’Autriche, de Koyl (la future ʿAlīgaŕh) et Itāwā [ q.v.] à l’Ouest, à Bihār et Tirhut [ q.vv.] à l’Est. C’est en grande partie à Ibrāhīm que le Ḏj̲uawnpur dut d’être le grand É…

, port de l’Inde situé à environ 90 km au Nord de Bombay, protégé par une forteresse bâtie sur une île et constitué de deux criques formant un mouillage abrité. Le gros village de Kēlvē, qui s’élève sur le rivage opposé de l’une des criques, est maintenant inclus avec le port dans une commune appelée Kēlvē-Māhīm et distinguée ainsi du faubourg de Māhīm sur l’île de Bombay. Le nom du port s’écrit aussi Mahīm et, dans les documents bahmanides, Mahāʾim. On sait qu’il était compris dans les possessions du sultanat de Dihlī au milieu du VIIIe/XIVe siècle, avant de passer à celui du Gud̲j̲arāt …

, mot urdu et hindi signifiant puits à degrés; il y en a deux types principaux dans l’Inde, le type septentrional et le type occidental. La variété du Nord est la plus simple; elle comprend essentiellement une large volée de marches de pierre qui descendent du niveau du sol jusqu’au-dessous de la ligne d’eau, sur toute la largeur de l’emplacement; des volées accessoires peuvent partir à l’opposé de ces marches et perpendiculairement à celles-ci au-dessous du niveau de l’eau, réduisant ainsi la c…

(p.), «lieu de prière», est synonyme, dans l’Inde, de ʿīdgāh, espace ouvert, généralement à l’Ouest d’une ville et couvert seulement de ce qui, dans une mosquée, serait le mur occidental, avec un ou des miḥrābs et un minbar et essentiellement entouré d’une clôture telle que l’espace clos puisse contenir toute la population musulmane de sexe masculin; le mur peut s’élever à l’extrémité occidentale d’une vaste zone pavée ( ṣaḥn), mais il n’y a généralement pas de ḥawḍ pour les ablutions. Le namāzgāh ne sert que pour la célébration des deux fêtes canoniques [voir ʿĪd] et n’a aucun caractèr…

, petite ville (17° 49’ N., 76° 29’E.) située dans l’ancien district de ʿUt̲h̲mānābād de l’État de Ḥaydarābād, aujourd’hui dans le Mahārās̲h̲tra; son fort, qui s’élève au-dessus du ravin de la rivière Bori, est l’une des forteresses les mieux fortifiées du Deccan. Son nom se présente aussi sous la forme Naldurg, qui est peut-être la meilleure ( durg = sanscrit durga: fort). Naldrug ne figure pas dans les campagnes au Deccan de Muḥammad b. Tug̲h̲luḳ, et il est donc probable qu’elle est tombée aux mains des Bahmanides après que les troupes impériales se furent retirées, à la fin du VIIIe/XIVe s…

, ville fortifiée du Deccan [voir Dakhan], à 60 kilomètres environ à l’Ouest de Bīdarf [ q.v.] (17°53’ N., 76°57’ E.). Elle fut, aux IVe et Ve/Xe et XIe siècles, la capitale des derniers rād̲j̲ās Čālukya occidentaux et passa ensuite aux Yādavas de Devagiri (= Dawlatābād [ q.v.]). Après son installation à Devagiri, la dynastie bahmanide annexa Kalyāni, qui devint sa place-forte sur la frontière septentrionale; auparavant, la ville avait probablement été occupée par les Musulmans ainsi que le font supposer une inscription existant au d̲j̲āmiʿ masd̲j̲id fondé en 723/1323 par Ulug̲h̲…

, nom donné au territoire du Pand̲j̲āb indien au Nord-ouest de Dihlī, entourant les villes de Hānsī [ q.v.] et Ḥiṣār Fīrūza [ q.v.] dans la circonscription actuelle de Ḥiṣār, et s’étendant à l’Est dans la région de Rohtak [ q.v.]; il est situé au Sud du cours du Ghaggar — qui coïncide partiellement avec l’ancien Saraswatī, autrefois tributaire de l’Indus [voir Sindhū], mais actuellement simple canal de drainage des pluies de la mousson, dont les eaux vont se perdre dans les sables du Rād̲j̲āsthān — et est traversé par le canal du Ḏj̲amnā occidental de Fīrū…

, nom communément donné parles historiens indiens à une famille turbulente d’origine tīmūride, qui provoqua des troubles, surtout au Xe/XVIe siècle, sous le règne de l’empereur mug̲h̲al Akbar, dont elle était cousine au sixième degré, puisqu’elle descendait de ʿUmar S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Mīrzā, le deuxième fils de Tīmūr (tandis qu’Akbar descendait de son troisième fils, Ḏj̲alāl al-dīn Mīrān S̲h̲āh). Abū l-Faḍl et Badāʾunī appellent les membres de cette famille mīrzāyān, et Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī al-Dābir, awlād Mīrzā Muḥammad Tīmūr Sulṭan. Il peut y avoir une confusion dans les textes quand…

b. ʿalī S̲h̲arīf al-Ḳurays̲h̲ī al-Nāgōrī, dont on ne connaît ni la date de la naissance ni celle de la mort, écrivit son Qanoon-e-Islam (Ḳānūn-i Islam) à l’instigation du Dr. Herklots, peu avant 1832. Il aurait été «un homme de basse extraction et sans importance dans son pays»; né à Uppuēlūru (Ellore) dans le district de Kistna (Madras), il fut employé comme muns̲h̲ī au service du gouvernement de Madras. Sunnite orthodoxe, mais tolérant envers les S̲h̲īʿites qui avaient alors une influence considérable dans le Sud de l’Inde, savant mais objectif dans sa …

, ville et ancien fort dans l’Inde centre-nord (24° 42´ N., 78° 9´ E.) sur un plateau dominant la vallée du Betwā à l’Est. Les références anciennes, chez al-Bīrūnī (421/1030) et Ibn Baṭṭūṭa, ne mentionnent pas le fort et s’appliquent probablement à un lieu situé à une quinzaine de km. au N.-N.-O. et connu sous le nom de Būŕhī (urdu: «ancien») Čandērī; il y a là des ruines de fortifications islamiques parmi des vestiges hindous et d̲j̲ayns, probablement du début du VIIIe/XIVe s., car, bien que la ville fût tombée en 649/1251 aux mains de G̲h̲iyāt̲h̲ al-dīn Balban, alors nāʾib de Nāṣir al-dīn, …

, a) nom d’une ville du Deccan (Dakhan) en Inde (17° 22′ N., 78° 27′ E.), aujourd’hui capitale de l’État indien d’Āndhra Pradēs̲h̲, et autrefois capitale successive du dernier des rois Ḳuṭb s̲h̲āhides de Golkond́ā, d’une ṣūba mug̲h̲ale après la conquête du Deccan par Awrangzib, du Niẓām et de l’État de Ḥaydarābād après l’indépendance de l’Inde; b) nom d’un ancien État de l’Union Indienne, aujourd’hui incorporé dans les provinces d’Āndhra Pradēs̲h̲, Mahārās̲h̲t́ra et Mysore (Mahisur), autrefois territoire de «His Exalted Hig̲h̲ness» (titre britannique conféré en 1918) le Niẓām. I. —…

, Naṣīr al-dīn, fondateur d’une dynastie éphémère qui régna à Kālpī [ q. v. ] dans la première moitié du IXe/XVe siècle. Il était le fils de Malikzāda Fīrūz b. Tād̲j̲ al-dīn Turk, vizir de G̲h̲iyāt̲h̲ al-dīn Tug̲h̲luḳ II qui fut tué avec son maître à Dihlī, en 791/1389; après cet événement, il s’enfuit à Kālpī, son iḳṭāʿ, auquel il donna le nom honorifique de Muḥammadābād et «aspira à l’indépendance» ( dam az istiḳlāl mīzad), ce qui ne fut pas très difficile à obtenir dans la situation bouleversée où se trouvait le sultanat de Dihlī après le sac de la ville par Tīmūr …

, nom communément donné aujourd’hui aux ruines de la capitale de l’empire de Vid̲j̲ayanagara [ q.v.], sur la rive droite du Tungabhadrā, à 60 km. au Nord-ouest de Bellary. Ce nom paraît être dérivé du remarquable temple de Pampāpati ( h kannad́a < anc. kann. p), dans le quartier du bāzār. L’empire de Vid̲j̲ayanagara est d’une certaine importance pour le monde musulman non seulement en tant que puissance hindoue agissante qui, pendant plus de deux siècles, défia ses voisins musulmans, mais aussi parce qu’il est le témoin de la synthèse progressiv…

, ville autrefois puissante de l’Uttar Prades̲h̲, dans l’Inde septentrionale (26°8’ N., 79°45’ E.). La vieille ville et le fort sont construits sur des escarpements argileux dominant le Ḏj̲amnà [ q.v.]; la ville nouvelle, au Sud-est de l’ancienne, a une certaine importance commerciale et possède des artisans qui fabriquent encore à la main un papier d’excellente qualité. Selon la tradition, elle fut fondée au IVe siècle de J.-C. par un rād̲j̲ā de Kannawd̲j̲ et elle tomba aux mains des Musulmans, en 593/1196, lors de la première conquête. Le fort élevé, défendu sur…

, prince mug̲h̲al qui était le troisième fils (abstraction faite des enfants morts en bas âge) de l’empereur Bābur, le frère germain de Kāmrān Mīrzā [ q.v.] et le demi-frère de l’empereur Humāyūn [ q.v.] et de Hindāl Mīrzā [ q.v.]. Il naquit en 922/1516, dans un camp militaire, comme l’indique son surnom, et mourut en 965/1558. Il reçut son premier commandement militaire à l’âge de 12 ans, pendant les campagnes orientales de Bābur au delà du Gange, Après l’avènement de Humāyūn en 937/1530, Kāmrān fut affecté à Ḳandahār, mais il y laissa le commandemen…

, ville, taḥṣīl et district des plaines septentrionales du Pand̲j̲āb pakistanais entre le Ḏj̲ehlam et le Čanāb. Le district aurait autrefois fait partie de l’ancien royaume des Gurd̲j̲ara, mais il n’est pas spécifiquement mentionné dans l’historiographie islamique jusqu’à l’époque de Bahlūl Lodī (855-94/1451-89) à laquelle fut fondée la ville de Bahlūlpur, à 36 km. au Nord-est de Gud̲j̲rāt; le peuplement du district fut poursuivi par S̲h̲ir S̲h̲āh au milieu du Xe/XVIe siècle et terminé par Akbar avec la reconstruction de la ville de Gud̲j̲rāt. Il semble y avoir eu au moins deux…

, ville indienne ancienne, au Ḵh̲āndēs̲h̲ [ q.v.] occidental (21° 22´ N, 74° 14´ E.), dans la vallée du Tapti. C’était autrefois un important centre commercial. Comme Nandigara, cette ville aurait été fondée par Nanda Gawlī, un chef de tribu local, et l’on affirme qu’elle est restée dans sa famille «jusqu’à sa conquête par les Mahométans sous les ordres de Muin-ud-din Chishti» ( IGI 2, XVIII, 362-3, s.v. Nandurbar), ce qui semble improbable et concerne peut-être une installation primitive de Ṣūfis. Elle paraît avoir changé de mains à diverses époques entre l…

, s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Ḏj̲amāl al-dīn Aḥmad, appelé également Ḳuṭb Ḏj̲amāl al-dīn, mystique sūfī de l’ordre indien des Čis̲h̲tiyya [ q.v.], né en 580/1184-5, m. à Hānsī en 659/1260-1; descendant du théologien et juriste Abū Ḥanīfa [ q.v.], il fut k̲h̲alīfa supérieur du s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Farīd al-dīn Masʿūd «Gand̲j̲-i S̲h̲akar» [ q.v.] pendant le séjour de celui-ci à Hānsī [ q.v.]; il aurait été le k̲h̲aṭīb de Hānsī lorsqu’il se rallia à Farīd al-dīn et aurait abandonné son poste et les avantages matériels qui s’y rattachaient, comme condition nécessaire de sa discipline spirituelle. Il est connu comm…

(P., litt. «sois distant»), masse ou massue employée comme emblème de dignité militaire; en persan et en turc, le mot dūrbās̲h̲ peut aussi s’appliquer au massier [voir Čāʾūs̲h̲, Sarhang]. Les cūbdārs décrits par Niẓām al-mulk ( Siyāsat-nāma, ch. XXXIX), qui paraissent avoir été des officiers similaires, portaient des bâtons d’or et d’argent; ʿAwfī, Ḏj̲āmiʿ al-hiḳāyāt (passage cité par M. F. Köprülü, Bizans miiesseselerin Osmanh müessesele- rine tesiri hakktnda bâzi mulâhazalar, dans Türk Hukuk ve Iktisat Tarihi Mecmuasi, Istanbul 1931, 213; trad. ital., Alcune osservazioni...,…

, Mahārād̲j̲ā d’Ambēr, célèbre général des armées mug̲h̲ales sous Akbar, puis gouverneur de provinces mug̲h̲ales. Il était né en 1607 V.S. = 957/1550, fils de Bhagwant Dās, lui-même fils aîné et héritier de Bhārah Mall, Mahārād̲j̲ā régnant, un Rād̲j̲pūt [ q.v.] du clan Kaččhwāha; les sources islamiques (Niẓām al-dīn, Badāʾūnī, Firis̲h̲ta, Abū l-Faḍl et Ḏj̲ahāngīr dans son Tūzuk) altèrent les noms et confondent les parentés de Mān Singh, mais il n’y a aucune raison de douter des relations rād̲j̲pūtes contemporaines. Après un entraînement militaire reçu…

, ville du Pand̲j̲āb indien (29° 7’N. et 76° E.), dans le Hariyānā [ q.v.], dont elle fut la capitale jusqu’à son remplacement par Ḥiṣār Fīrūza [ q.v.] en 757/1356. On sait par les inscriptions qu’elle fut occupée par les Tomārs et les Čawhāns avant la conquête musulmane et qu’elle fut peut-être habitée depuis l’époque des Kus̲h̲āṇa au Ier ou IIe siècle de J.-C.: l’ancien fort, au Nord-est de la ville actuelle, est certainement un vaste tell formé par une accumulation de nombreuses couches culturelles. Hānsī était déjà une place-forte importante lorsque Masʿūd, fils de …

(Deccan), souvent prononcé localement Ḳand̲h̲ār ou Kandhâr, pour la distinguer de son illustre homonyme afghan, forteresse de plaine avec ses taʿalluḳs environnants, principalement agricoles, qui fit d’abord partie des possessions bahmanides [ q.v.] et appartint ensuite aux ʿĀdil S̲h̲āhides. Il semble cependant que les Musulmans l’aient d’abord occupée, étant donné que la porte principale porte une inscription de Muḥammad b. Tug̲h̲luḳ ( EIM 1010-20, 16-7 [ q.v.]) qui s’en empara probablement au cours de son expédition contre le Sud de l’Inde. La forteresse, si…

, ville et district au Nord de l’État de Mysore en Inde, sur les confins occidentaux du pays connu sous le nom de «Deccan» (Dakhān [ q.v.]); la ville est située à 17° 21′ N., 76° 51′ E. Remontant assez loin dans la période hindoue, elle faisait partie des possessions des Kākatīyas de Warangaḷ avant la conquête islamique. Elle fut annexée au sultanat de Dihlī par Ulug̲h̲ Ḵh̲ān, le futur Muḥammad b. Tug̲h̲luḳ, au début du VIIIe/ XIVe siècle, pour passer d’abord, lors de sa fondation en 748/1347, à la dynastie des Bahmanides dont elle devint la première capitale sous le nom…

, nom donné dans les chroniques indiennes à la région qui s’étend dans le Sud-ouest du Rād̲j̲āsthān [ q.v.] et correspond approximativement à celle qui est aujourd’hui désignée, d’après sa ville principale, sous le nom d’Udaypur [ q.v.] (bien que cette dernière n’ait été fondée qu’en 966/1559). La¶ contrée, montagneuse et couverte de forêts considérables, était séparée du Mārwāŕ rād̲j̲put voisin, à l’Ouest, par les hauteurs d’Aravalli et bordée au Sud par le Gud̲j̲arāt, au Sud-est et à l’Est par le Mālwā, et au Nord-Est par le sultanat de Dihlī (voir la carte s.v. Rād̲j̲āsthān). Elle est…

, ville en ruine du Gud̲j̲arāt, dans l’Inde occidentale (22° 29´ N. et 73° 32´ E.), à environ 125 km. au S.-E. d’Aḥmadābād. Le sultan du Gud̲j̲arāt, Maḥmūd S̲h̲āh 1er «Begadā», en allant s’emparer en 889/1484 de la place-forte voisine de Pāwāgaŕh, qui avait résisté victorieusement à Aḥmad S̲h̲āh 1er en 821/1418, prit la ville au passage. Le Begad́ā occupa Čāmpānēr sur-le-champ, l’entourant d’une enceinte flanquée de bastions et percée de portes (appelée Ḏj̲ahānpanāh; inscription EIM, 1929-30, 4-5), et y construisant une citadelle ( bhādar). Il rebaptisa la ville Maḥmūdābād, et …

, ancienne ville de l’Inde (28° 3´ N., 76° 10´ E.), dans l’État actuel de Haryana, à environ 130 km au Sud-ouest de Dihlī. C’est probablement (Ishwari Prasad, Life and times of Humayun, 95) le lieu de naissance de S̲h̲īr s̲h̲āh, car sa famille y résidait depuis quelque temps. Mais Nārnawl a des références islamiques bien plus anciennes, l’inscription du dargāh de S̲h̲āh Wilāyat montrant que le saint y vivait en 531/1137 et avant, c’est-à-dire plus de cinquante ans avant la conquête de Dihlī par les Musulmans; ce dargāh présente des signes du style préislamique de plafond à caissons…