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, the name of a family of saiyids and scholars established at Damascus in the xith—xiith (xviith—xviiith) centuries. 1. The founder of the family, Murād b. ʿAlī al-Ḥusainī al-Buk̲h̲ārī, born 1050 (1640), was the son of the naḳīb al-as̲h̲rāf of Samarḳand. He travelled in his youth to India, where he was initiated into the Naḳs̲h̲bandī ṭarīḳa by S̲h̲aik̲h̲ Muḥammad Maʿṣūm al-Fārūḳī, and after extensive journeys through Persia, the Arab lands and Egypt settled in Damascus about 1081 (1670). He subsequently made several visits to Mekka and Constantinopl…

, the name given to the first Muslim dynasty of independent governors and rulers of Egypt. The founder of the dynasty, Aḥmad b. Ṭūlūn [q. v.], entered Fusṭāṭ as the deputy of the fieffee of Egypt, the Turkish general Bāyakbāk, on 23rd Ramaḍān 254 (15th September 868), and in the course of the next ten years succeeded in uniting Egypt and Syria under his rule, in virtual independence of the Caliphate. He died on 10th Ḏh̲u ’l-Ḳaʿda 270 (10th May 884), having nominated as his successor his son Ḵh̲umārawaih [q. v.], who, after a brilliant reign of twelve years, was murdered at Damascus on 17th Ḏh̲u ’l…

, a village and district on the right bank of the Nile, fifty miles north of Ḵh̲arṭum. In the xvith century the governorship of the surrounding territory was conferred by the Fūnd̲j̲ ruler, ʿUmāra Dunḳās, on ʿAbd Allāh Ḏj̲amāʿa (d. 1554—1562) of the Arab tribe of Rufāʿa. His descendants, the ʿAbdallāb, maintained their position as a semi-independent dynasty with the title of Mānd̲j̲il or Mānd̲j̲ilak until the Egyptian conquest, but transferred their seat from Ḳerrī to Ḥalfāyat al-Mulūk after the rise of S̲h̲endī in the latter part of the xviiith century. (H. A. R. Gibb) Bibliography H. A. …

, Abū Tamīm Maʿadd b. Ismāʿīl al-Manṣūr, fourth Fāṭimid caliph, was born at Mahdīya on 11th Ramaḍān 319 (28th Sept. 931), proclaimed heir-apparent in (952—953), and succeeded to the throne in S̲h̲awwāl of the same year (March 953). His first object was to restore the Fāṭimid power, which had been reestablished in Ifrīḳiya by his father, over the remaining provinces of the Mag̲h̲rib. In 342 he led in person an army of Kitāma into the Awrās mountains and not only reduced the turbulent tribes of that region for the …

Abu ’l-Ḳāsim Aḥmad b. al-Mustanṣir, ninth Fāṭimid Caliph, born 20th Muḥarram, 467 [Sept. 16, 1074] (so in all the best sources and in al-Mustanṣir’s letter to Aḥmad b. ʿAlī al-Ṣulaihī, quoted in Idrīs, vii. 152), the youngest son of his father. At this time it was generally assumed in the Ismāʿīlī organization that the eldest son, Nizār (born 437), would, in accordance with custom, succeed his father in the imāmate, although no formal investiture with the wilāyat al-ʿahd appears to have been made. The influence of the all-powerful wazīr Badr al-Ḏj̲amālī, however, and of …

al-Malik al-ʿĀdil, Badr al-Dīn Anū S̲h̲ud̲j̲āʾ Mad̲j̲d al-Islām, Fāṭimid wazīr, of Armenian origin, succeeded his father Ṭalāʾiʿ [q. v.] after the latter’s assassination on 20th Ramaḍān 556 (Sept. 12, 1161), and remained in office for fifteen months. The only event of importance during this period was a Berber invasion in 557 (1162) under Ḥusain b. Nizār [see nizār b. al-mustanṣir], who was captured and put to death. Ruzzīk inherited the literary tastes of his father and is said to have governed well, but when, in the same year, he attempted to remove h…

(ʿIlm al-Taʾrīk̲h̲), Historiography, as a term of literature, embraces both annalistic and biography (but not as a rule literary history). The development of Arabic and Persian historiography is summarized below in four sections: A. From the origins to the third century of the Hid̲j̲ra; B. From the third to the sixth centuries; C. From the end of the sixth to the beginning of the tenth century; D. From the tenth to the thirteenth centuries. For the historical literature of the Ottoman Turks see the article turks (vol. iv. 947 sqq.), and for that written in Malay the article malays (vol. iii.…

, the name of a family of scholars and jurists established at Damascus in the xth—xith (xvith—xviith) centuries, the descendants of Muḥibb al-Dīn Abu ’l-Faḍl Muḥammad b. Abū Bakr, originally of Ḥamā (949—1016 = 1542—1608). The most famous member of the family was his great-grandson, Muḥammad Amīn b. Faḍl Allāh, born at Damascus in 1061 (1651). After completing his studies in Constantinople, he returned to Damascus in 1092 (1681) and engaged in teaching and literary work there until his death in 1111 (1699), except for a short interval during which he served as nāʾib to the ḳāḍī of Mekka…

, Fāṭimid claimant, born 10th Rabīʿ I 437 (Sept. 26, 1045). On the death of his father, having been displaced by his youngest brother al-Mustaʿlī [q. v.], Nizār fled to Alexandria, took the title of al-Muṣṭafā li-Dīn Allāh, and rose in revolt early in 488(1095) with the assistance of the governor, Naṣr al-Dawla Aftakīn, who was jealous of al-Afḍal, and the population of the city. He was at first successful in driving back al-Afḍal and advanced as far as the outskirts of Cairo, supported by Arab auxi…

(properly Suʿūd) b. Muḥammad of the Muḳrin clan of ʿAnaza, the founder of the Wahhābī dynasty of the Āl-Saʿūd in Nad̲j̲d [see the article ibn saʿūd], succeeded his father as amīr of Darʿīya in 1137 (1724) or 1140 (1727). His association with the reformer Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Wahhāb [cf. wahhābīya] began in 1157 (1744). Thereafter until his death (end of Rabīʿ I, 1179 = Sept. 1765) the history of his reign consists of an unceasing and on the whole indecisive struggle against the neighbouring settlements and tribes and his former suzerains, the B…

Abū ʿUbaid Allāh, son of Abu ’l-Sād̲j̲ Dīwdād, an Eastern Iranian (not Turkish) noble from Us̲h̲rūsana in Mā-warāʾ al-Nahr (see Barthold, Turkestan, G. M.S., p. 169). For his early career see the article sād̲j̲ids. After his rupture with Ḵh̲umārawaih he returned to Bag̲h̲dād (276 = 889) and appears to have remained there (cf. Ṭabarī, iii. 2122) until his appointment as governor of Ād̲h̲arbāid̲j̲ān in 279 (892). Though on his arrival he had entertained friendly relations with the Bagratid king of Armenia, Sembat (ace. 891), afte…

, Abū ʿUbayd Allāh, fils d’Abū l-Sād̲j̲ Dīwdād, noble iranien (non turc) oriental de la région d’Us̲h̲rūsana, en Transoxiane. En ce qui concerne le début de sa carrière, voir l’article Sād̲j̲ides. Après sa rupture avec le Ṭūlūnide Ḵh̲umārawayh, il retourna à Bag̲h̲dād (276/889) et il semble y être demeuré (cf. al-Ṭabarī, III, 2122) jusqu’à sa nomination comme gouverneur de l’Ād̲h̲arbayd̲j̲ān en 279/892. Bien qu’il eût, à son arrivée, entretenu des relations amicales avec le roi bagratide d’Arménie, Sembat (monté sur le trône…

, famille de lettrés égyptiens, d’origine palestinienne, dont l’ancêtre, Ṣāliḥ, s’établit à Bulḳīna dans la G̲h̲arbiyya. 1. ʿUmar b. Raslān b. Naṣīr b. Ṣāliḥ, Sirād̲j̲ al-dīn Abū Ḥafṣ al-Kinānī, né le 12 s̲h̲aʿbān 724/4 août 1324, mort le 10 d̲h̲ū l-ḳaʿda 805/1er juin 1403. Il étudia au Caire sous la direction des plus célèbres lettrés de l’époque, y compris Ibn ʿAḳīl [ q.v.] dont il épousa la fille; il fut nāʾib durant la brève judicature d’Ibn ʿAkīl en 759/1358. Nommé muftī à la Dār al-ʿadl en 765/1363, il devint le juriste le plus célèbre de son temps (cf. Ibn Ḵh̲aldūn, Muḳaddima, ch. 6, § …

founder of a line of governors of Baṣra (Āl Afrāsiyāb). He was an officer of unknown racial origin, who purchased the government of Baṣra from the local pas̲h̲a about 1021/1612. Afrāsiyāb was succeeded by his son ʿAlī in 1034/1624-5, during an attack on Baṣra by Persian forces, which failed in face of ʿAlī’s resistance. A second Persian attempt in 1038/1629 was equally unsuccessful. During the Turco-Persian struggle for Bag̲h̲dād, ʿAlī Pas̲h̲a took neither part and continued to govern his provin…

, Abū ʿUbayd Allāh , son of Abu ’l-Sad̲j̲ Dīwdād, an Eastern Iranian (not Turkish) noble from the region of Us̲h̲rūsana [ q.v.] in Transoxania. For his early career, see the article sād̲j̲ids . After his rupture with the Ṭūlūnid K̲h̲umārawayh, he returned to Bag̲h̲dād (276/889) and appears to have remained there (cf. al-Ṭabarī, iii, 2122) until his appointment as governor of Ād̲h̲arbāyd̲j̲ān in 279/892. Though on his arrival he had entertained friendly relations with the Bagratid king of Armenia, Sembat (succeeded 891), after se…

, anti-Caliph, son of al-Zubayr b. al-ʿAwwām [ q.v.], of the ʿAbd al-ʿUzza clan of Ḳurays̲h̲, and Asmāʾ [ q.v.], daughter of Abū Bakr and sister of ʿĀʾis̲h̲a. He was born at Medina twenty months after the hid̲j̲ra (c. Ḏh̲u ’l-Ḳaʿda 2/May 624), and killed in battle against the Syrian troops under al-Ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ād̲j̲, 17 Ḏj̲umādā I or II, 73/4 Oct. or 3 Nov., 692. Some sources (Ibn Ḳutayba, Maʿārif , 116; Ibn Ḥabīb, Muḥabbar , 275; etc.) state that he was the first child born to the Muhād̲j̲irīn at Medina. The close kinship which linked him to the f…

, ḥasan b. muḥammad , Egyptian scholar of Mag̲h̲ribine origin, born in Cairo after 1180/1766. He studied at al-Azhar, and was one of the few ʿulamāʾ who, after the occupation of Egypt by Bonaparte, entered into relations with the French scholars and took an active interest in the new learning. He then spent many years in Syria and Turkey, and on his return to Egypt was employed as editor of the Official Journal ( al-Waḳāʾiʿ al-Miṣriyya ) founded by Muḥammad ʿAlī (1244/1828). In 1245/1830 he was installed as S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-Azhar by Muḥammad ʿAlī, wit…

b. badr b. al-ḏj̲ahm al-sāmī , Arab poet, of Banū Sāmā b. Luʾayy, a tribe from Baḥrayn, whose claim to descent from Ḳurays̲h̲ was disputed. His father al-Ḏj̲ahm moved from Ḵh̲urāsān to Bag̲h̲dād and was appointed to various offices under al-Maʾmūn and al-Wāt̲h̲ik; the poet’s brothers also were prominent in official and literary circles. ʿAlī was born probably c. 188/804, and received his education in Bag̲h̲dād. Under al-Muʿtaṣim (218-27/833-42) he held maẓālim jurisdiction in Ḥulwān, but, perhaps because of his support of Aḥmad b. Ḥanbal in op…

, or fāmiya , the Seleucid city of Apamea on the right bank of the Orontes (ʿĀṣī), at its northward bend 25 m. N.W. of Ḥamāt. During the Syrian campaign of the Sāsānid Ḵh̲usraw I (540) it was captured and laid waste. After the Arab conquest of Syria it was colonized by tribesmen of ʿUd̲h̲ra and Baḥrāʾ. It regained importance as a fortified outpost of Aleppo only in the Ḥamdānid period and during the early Crusades. After the disintegration of the Sald̲j̲ūḳ power in Syria, Afām…

Lūṭ b. Yaḥyā b. Saʿīd b. Mik̲h̲naf al-Azdī , one of the earliest Arabic traditionists and historians, d. 157/774. He is credited in the Fihrist with 32 monographs on diverse episodes of Arab history, relating mainly to ʿIrāḳ, much of the contents of which is preserved in the chronicles of al-Balād̲h̲urī and al-Ṭabarī. The separate works which have come down to us under his name are later pseudographs. His great-grandfather Mik̲h̲naf was the leader of the ʿIrāḳī Azd on the side of ‘Alī (for him see Ibn Saʿd, vi, 22 and Naṣr b. Muzāḥim, Waḳʿat Ṣiffīn (Cairo 1365), inde…

, daughter of the caliph Abū Bakr by his wife Ḳutayla bint ʿAbd al-ʿUzzā of ʿĀmir b. Luʾayy. She was the elder half-sister of ʿĀʾis̲h̲a, and one of the early converts to Islam in Mecca. At the time of Muḥammad’s flight from Mecca with Abū Bakr, she tore her girdle in two to serve for the Prophet’s provision-bag and the strap of his water-skin; this is the traditional explanation of her nickname Ḏh̲āt al-Niṭāḳayn , "She of the Two Girdles". After the Hid̲j̲ra she was married to al-Zubayr b. al-ʿAwwām [ q.v.], and their son ʿAbd Allāh was reputedly the first child born in the Muslim com…

, properly āḳā ḵh̲ān , title applied to the Imāms of the Nizārī [ q.v.] Ismāʿīlīs. It was originally an honorary title at the court of the Ḳād̲j̲ār S̲h̲āhs of Persia, borne by Ḥasan ʿAlī S̲h̲āh, who, after the murder of his father Ḵh̲alīl Allāh in 1817, gained the favour of Fatḥ ʿAlī S̲h̲āh and received the hand of one of his daughters in marriage. ¶ In consequence of intrigues at the court under the reign of Muḥammad S̲h̲āh, Ḥasan ʿAlī S̲h̲āh revolted in 1838 in Kirmān, but was defeated and fled in 1840 to Sind, where he rendered valuable services to Sir Ch.…

al-Sulamī , governor of Ḵh̲urāsān. On the first expedition of ʿAbd Allāh b. ʿĀmir [ q.v.] into Ḵh̲urāsān in 31/651-2, Ibn Ḵh̲āzim commanded the advance-guard which occupied Sarak̲h̲s. According to some accounts, he put down a rebellion led by Ḳārin in 33/653-4 and was-rewarded with the governorship of the province, but this is probably an anticipation of the events of 42/662. During Ibn ʿĀmir’s second governorship of Baṣra (41/661), Ḳays b. al-Hayt̲h̲am al-Sulamī was appointed to Ḵh̲urāsān, and ʿAbd Allāh b. Ḵ…

, S̲h̲iʿite rebel. Said to have been a donkey-driver, and afterwards a bandit, he entered the service of Yazīd b. Mazyad al-S̲h̲aybānī in Armenia, and was engaged against the Ḵh̲urramiyya [ q.v.]. Later he commanded Yazīd’s vanguard against Hart̲h̲ama in the civil war between al-Amīn and al-Maʾmūn, but subsequently changed sides and joined Hart̲h̲ama. Obtaining permission to go on pilgrimage to Mecca, he openly revolted, and after defeating the troops sent against him went to al-Raḳḳa. Here he met the ʿAlid Muḥammad b. Ibrāhīm b. Ṭabāṭabā [ q.v.], whom he persuaded to go to Kūfa, …

, of the family of Balḥārit̲h̲, of the Ḳuras̲h̲ite tribe of Fihr, one of the early Meccan converts to Islām, and one of the ten Believers to whom Paradise was promised (see al-ʿAs̲h̲ara al-Mubas̲h̲s̲h̲ara ). He took part in the emigration to Abyssinia, and is said to have been distinguished for courage and unselfishness and to have been given the title of amīn by Muḥammad for that reason. He was 41 years of age at the battle of Badr, and took part in the later campaigns, distinguishing himself at Uḥud, and as the commander of severai …

, governor of Baṣra, was born in Mecca in 4/626. He belonged to the Ḳurays̲h̲ite clan of ʿAbd S̲h̲ams and was a maternal cousin of the caliph ʿUt̲h̲mān. In 29/649-50 he was appointed by ʿUt̲h̲mān to the governorship of Baṣra, in succession to Abū Mūsā al-As̲h̲ʿarī, and immediately took the field in Fārs, completing the conquest of that province by the capture of Iṣṭak̲h̲r, Darābd̲j̲ird and Ḏj̲ūr (Fīrūzābād). In 30-31/651 he advanced into Ḵh̲urāsān, defeated the Ephthalites, and occupied the whol…

, the name of a family of sayyids and scholars established at Damascus in the 11th-12th/17-18th centuries. 1. The founder of the family, murād b. ʿalī al-ḥusaynī al-buk̲h̲ārī , born 1050/1640, was the son of the naḳīb al-as̲h̲rāf of Samarḳand. He travelled in his youth to India, where he was initiated into the Naḳs̲h̲bandī ṭarīḳa by S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Muḥammad Maʿṣūm al-Fārūḳī, and after extensive journeys through Persia, the Arab lands and Egypt settled in Damascus about 1081/1670. He subsequently made several visits to Mecca and Ist…

b. asad al-ḳasrī (of the Ḳasr sept of Bad̲j̲īla; not al-Ḳus̲h̲ayrī, as sometimes printed in error), governor of Ḵh̲urāsān, 106-9/724-7 and 117-20/735-8, under his brother Ḵh̲ālid b. ʿAbd Allāh [ q.v.], governor of al-ʿIrāq and the East, in the reign of His̲h̲ām b. ʿAbd al-Malik. His first period of governorship coincided with increasing pressure by Turkish forces against the Arabs in Transoxiana, which he was unable to counter effectively, although he conducted successful raids into the fringes of the Parapomisus. In 107/726…

Dīwdād ( Dēwdād̲h̲ ) b. Dīwdast , founder of the Sād̲j̲id dynasty, descended from a noble Iranian family of Ushrūsana related to its ruler, the Afs̲h̲īn [ q.v.] Ḥaydar (Ḵh̲ayd̲h̲ar) b. Kāʾus, under whose command he served in the expedition against Bābak (221-2/836-7). In 224/839 he led an expedition against the Afs̲h̲īn’s rebellious deputy Mankad̲j̲ūr in Ād̲h̲arbayd̲j̲ān. In 242/856 or 244/858 (see al-Ṭabarī, iii, 1436) he was appointed by the caliph al-Mutawakkil to the command of the Mecca Road, which he held until the …

Maʿmar b. al-Mut̲h̲annā , Arabic philologist, born 110/728 in Baṣra, d. 209/824-5 (other dates also in Taʾrīk̲h̲ Bag̲h̲dād and later works). He was born a mawlā of the Ḳurays̲h̲ite clan of Taym, in the family of ʿUbayd Allāh Maʿmar (cf. Ibn Ḥazm, Ḏj̲amharat Ansāb al-ʿArab , Cairo 1948, 130); his father or grandfather came originally from Bād̲j̲arwān (near al-Raḳḳa in Mesopotamia, less probably the village of the same name in S̲h̲irwān) and was said, on dubious authority, to have been Jewish. He studied under the leadi…

, fifth Caliph of the Umayyad line, reigned 65-86/685-705. According to general report he was born in the year 26/646-7, the son of Marwān b. al-Ḥakam [ q.v.], his mother being ʿĀʾis̲h̲a bint Muʿāwiya b. al-Mug̲h̲īra. As a boy of ten he was an eye-witness of the storming of ʿUt̲h̲mān’s house, and, at the age of sixteen Muʿāwiya appointed him to command the Madinian troops against the Byzantines. He remained at Medina until the outbreak of the rebellion against Yazīd I (62-3/682-3). When the Umayyads were expelled by the rebels, he left the town with his ¶ father, but on meeting the Syrian …

al-Ḥamdānī , poetic cognomen of al-Ḥārit̲h̲ b. Abi ’l-ʿAlāʾ Saʿīd b. Ḥamdān al-Tag̲h̲libī , Arab poet, born in 320/932, probably in ʿIrāḳ. Saʿīd, himself a poet, was killed by his nephew Nāṣir al-Dawla Ḥasan on attempting to occupy Mawṣil in 323/935, The mother of Abū Firās, a Greek umm walad, moved with her son to Aleppo after its occupation by the poet’s cousin Sayf al-Dawla in 333/944, and there he was trained under the eye of Sayf al-Dawla, who also married his sister. In 336/947-8 he was appointed to the governorship of Manbid̲j̲ (and lat…

, the traditional name for the site of a battle fought in Ḏj̲umādā I or II, 13/July-August 634, between the Muslim Arab invaders and the Greek defenders of Palestine. Although located by the literary sources between Ramla and Bayt Ḏj̲ibrīn, no place of this name is attested by the geographers. On topographical grounds, the site of the battle was located by Miednikoff on the Wādī al-Ṣamt in the vicinity of the two villages of al-Ḏj̲annāba (G̲h̲arbiyya and S̲h̲arḳiyya), 34° 5…

al-Rāsibī , Ḵh̲ārid̲j̲ite leader, a tābiʿī of the Bad̲j̲īla tribe, noted for his bravery and piety and surnamed d̲h̲u ’l-t̲h̲afināt , "the man with the callosities", on account of the callosities on his forehead etc. resulting from his many prostrations. He fought under Ṣaʿd b. Abī Waḳḳāṣ in ʿIrāḳ and under ʿAlī at Ṣiffīn, but broke with him over the decision to arbitrate and joined the dissidents at Ḥarūraʾ. Shortly before their final departure from Kūfa in S̲h̲awwāl 37/March 658, the Ḵh̲ārid̲j̲ites elected ʿAbd Allāh as their commander ( amīr , not k̲h̲alīfa , as…

, Abu ’l-Kāsim Aḥmad b. al-Mustanṣir , ninth Fāṭimid caliph, born 20 Muḥarram 467/16 September 1074 (so in all the best sources and in al-Mustanṣir’s letter to Aḥmad b. ʿAlī al-Ṣulayḥī, quoted in Idrīs, vii, 152), the youngest son of his father. At this time it was generally assumed in the Ismāʿīlī organisation that the eldest son, Nizār (born 437/1045-6), would, in accordance with custom, succeed his father in the imāmate, although no formal investiture with the wilāyat al-ʿahd appears to have been made. The influence of the all-powerful wazīr …

b. ṣalāḥ al-dīn , in full al-malik al-afḍal abu ’l-ḥasan ʿalī nūr al-dīn , the eldest son of Saladin (Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn, [ q.v.]), b. 565/1169-70, d. at Sumaysāṭ 622/1225. On Saladin’s death he was recognized as ruler of Damascus and head of the Ayyūbid family, but owing to his incapacity and self-indulgence he lost successively Damascus, Egypt, and all his Syrian fiefs, and ended as a dependent of the Sald̲j̲ūḳ sultan of Rūm. See ayyūbids . (H.A.R. Gibb) Bibliography Ibn Ḵh̲allikān, no. 459 Abū S̲h̲āma, Ḏh̲ayl al-Rawḍatayn, 145 Ibn Tag̲h̲rībīrdī, Nud̲j̲ūm, vi, index Maḳrīzī, Sulūk, i, index.

, “White Falcon”, the name of many Turkish officers, of whom the following are the most important: 1. āḳ sunḳur b. ʿabd allāh ḳasīm al-dawla , known as al-ḥād̲j̲ib , mamlūk of Malik-s̲h̲āh [ q.v.], who appointed him to the government of Aleppo in 480/1087. He at first supported the efforts of the Sald̲j̲ūḳ prince Tutus̲h̲ [ q.v.] to establish himself in Syria, but after Malik-s̲h̲āh’s death he, with the other governors in northern Syria and the Ḏj̲azīra, declared for Barkiyāruḳ, and was defeated and executed by Tutus̲h̲ near Aleppo in Ḏj̲umādā I, 487/May 1094. He was the father of Zankī [ q.v.],…

, Ismāʿīl b. ( al-Afḍal ) ʿAlī b. ( al-Muẓaffar ) Maḥmūd b. ( al-Manṣūr ) Muḥammad b. Taḳī al-Dīn ʿUmar b. S̲h̲āhans̲h̲āh b. Ayyūb , al-Malik al-Muʾayyad ʿImād al-Dīn , Syrian prince, historian, and geographer, of the family of the Ayyūbids [ q.v.], born in Damascus, Ḏj̲um. i, 672/Nov. 1273. At the age of 12, in the company of his father and his cousin al-Muẓaffar Maḥmūd II, prince of Ḥamāh, he was present at the siege and capture of Marḳab (Margat) (684/1285). He took part also in the later campaigns against the Crusaders. On the suppre…

, family of Egyptian scholars of Palestinian origin, whose ancestor Ṣāliḥ settled at Bulḳīna in al-G̲h̲arbiyya. (1) ʿumar b. raslān b. naṣīr b. ṣāliḥ , sirād̲j̲ al-dīn abū ḥafṣ al-kinānī , born 12 S̲h̲aʿbān 724/4 August 1324, died 10 D̲h̲u ’l-Ḳaʿda 805/1 June 1403. He studied at Cairo under the most farnous scholars of the day, including Ibn ʿAḳīl [ q.v.], whose daughter he married, and served as nāʾib during Ibn ʿAḳīl’s brief tenure as Grand Ḳāḍī in 759/1358. Appointed Muftī in the Dar al-ʿAdl in 765/1363, he became the most celebrated jurist of his age (cf. Ibn Ḵh̲aldūn, Muḳaddima …

b. al-Walīd al-mak̲h̲zūmī , the only surviving son of the famous Arab general. At the age of eighteen he commanded a squadron at the battle of the Yarmūk. Muʿāwiya subsequently appointed him governor of Ḥimṣ and he commanded several of the later Syrian expeditions ¶ into Anatolia. During the civil war, after successfully opposing an ʿIrāḳī expedition into the Ḏj̲azīra. he joined Muʿāwiya at Ṣiffīn and was made standard-bearer. According to the received tradition, Muʿāwiya, fearing that ʿAbd al-Raḥmān might be a rival of Yazīd for the succ…

, Egyptian scholar and writer, b. in Cairo 2 Muḥarram 1304/1 Oct. 1886, d. 30 Ramaḍān 1373/30 May 1954. After studying in al-Azhar and the School of S̲h̲arʿī Law, he served as a magistrate in the Native Courts, and in 1926 was appointed to the staff of the Egyptian University (U. of Cairo), where from 1936-1946 he was professor of Arabic Literature. In 1947 he became Director of the Cultural Section of the Arab League. Aḥmad Amīn was one of the founders and most active members of the Lad̲j̲nat al-taʾlīf wa’l-tard̲j̲ama wa’l-nas̲h̲r (see U. Rizzitano, in OM, 1940, 31-8), for which he edited…

b. Ḥabīb b. ʿAbd S̲h̲ams b. ʿAbd Manāf b. Ḳuṣayy , Arab general. The name ʿAbd al-Raḥmān was given him by Muḥammad on his conversion in place of his former name ʿAbd al-Kaʿba. His first command was in Sid̲j̲istān in succession to al-Rabīʿ b. Ziyād in the latter years of the caliphate of ʿUt̲h̲mān, when he conquered Zarand̲j̲ and Zamīn-i Dāwar and made a treaty with the ruler of Kirmān. He withdrew after the death of ʿUt̲h̲mān; according to Chinese sources, Pēroz, the son of Yazdigird III, then attempted to establish himself in Sid̲j̲istān (Chavannes, Documents sur les Tou-kiue …

, Fāṭimid claimant, born on 10 Rabīʿ I 437/26 September 1045. On the death of his father, having been displaced by his youngest brother al-Mustaʿlī [ q.v.], Nizār fled to Alexandria, took the title of al-Muṣṭafā li-Dīn Allāh, and rose in revolt early in 488/1095 with the assistance of the governor, Naṣr al-Dawla Aftakīn, who was jealous of al-Afḍal, and the population of the city. He was at first successful in driving back al-Afḍal and advanced as far as the outskirts of Cairo, supported by Arab auxiliaries. Al-Afḍal aga…

, “Commander of the Believers” (the translation “Prince of the Believers” is neither philologically nor historically correct), title adopted by ʿUmar b. al-Ḵh̲aṭṭāb on his election as caliph. Amīr , as a term designating a person invested with command ( amr ), and more especially military command, is in this general sense compounded with al-muʾminīn to designate the leaders of various Muslim expeditions both in the lifetime of the Prophet and after, e.g. Saʿd b. Abī Waḳḳāṣ [ q.v.], the commander of the Muslim army against the Persians at Ḳādisiyya. Its adoption as a title…

, harbour on the African coast of the Red Sea, the ruins of which still exist on a flat and waterless mound 12 miles N. of Ḥalayb, at 22° 20′ N., 36° 29′ 32″ E. It is mentioned already in the 3rd/9th century as a port used by pilgrims to Mecca and merchants from al-Yaman (Yaʿḳūbī 335; cf. BGA iii, 78), and was linked to the Nile valley by caravan roads from Aswān (15 days) and Ḳūṣ (17 days). Originally a small village of huts, it grew in importance from the 5th/11th century in consequence of increasing Egyptian commerce with al-Yaman, and was especiall…

, small fishing port on the coast of Palestine, 10 miles north of Jaffa. The Arabic name probably preserves its original dedication to the Semitic god Reseph. Under the Seleucids it was renamed Apollonia. In the early centuries of the Caliphate it was one of the principal fortified cities of the province of Filasṭīn. It was occupied by the Crusaders under Baldwin I in 494/1101 and called by them Azotus; recaptured by Saladin in 583/1187; scene of an engagement between Saladin and Richard I, 14 S…

b. Yaḥyā b. Saʿd , the founder of Arabic epistolary style, mawlā of the Ḳuras̲h̲ī clan of ʿĀmir b. Luʾayy. He was probably a native of al-Anbār, and is said to have been a travelling pedagogue before he was employed in the Umayyad secretariat under His̲h̲ām’s chief secretary, the mawlā Sālim; he was then attached to Marwān b. Muḥammad, whom he continued to serve as chief secretary after Marwān’s accession to the Caliphate. He refused to desert his master in misfortune and is generally said to have shared his fate at Būṣīr…

, gouverneur de Baṣra, né à la Mekke en 4/626. Il appartenait au clan ḳurays̲h̲ite de ʿAbd S̲h̲ams et était cousin du calife ʿUt̲h̲mān par sa mère. En 29/649-50, ʿUt̲h̲mān lui conféra la charge de gouverneur de Baṣra après Abū Mūsā al-As̲h̲ʿarī; il se mit immédiatement en campagne en Perse, et paracheva la conquête de cette province par la prise d’Iṣṭak̲h̲r, Darābd̲j̲ird et Ḏj̲ūr (Fīrūzābād). En 30-31/651, il pénétra au Ḵh̲urāsān. battit les Epht̲h̲alites et occupa toute la province jusqu’à Marw…

, titre de deux princes ayyùbides: 1. al-Malik al-ʿĀdil Abū Bakr Muḥammad b. Ayyūb, portant le titre honorifique de Sayf al-dīn («Sabre de la Religion» le Saphadin des Croisés), frère, adjoint et héritier spirituel de Saladin (Ṣalāḥ al-dīn [ q.v.]). Il était né en muharram 540/juin-juillet 1145, ou selon d’autres en 538/1143-4, à Damas ou à Baalbek, donc six ou huit ans après son célèbre frère. Al-ʿĀdil accompagna Saladin en Égypte pendant la troisième et dernière expédition de S̲h̲īrkūh (564/1169). Son premier poste important fut le gouvernement de l’Égypte p…

Maʿmar b. al-Mut̲h̲annā, philologue arabe, né en 110/728 à Baṣra, m. en 209/824-6 (voir autres dates in Taʾrīk̲h̲ Bag̲h̲ād et ouvrages ultérieurs). Il naquit mawlā du clan ḳurays̲h̲ite des Taym, dans la famille de ʿUbayd Allāh Maʿmar (cf. Ibn Ḥazm, Ḏj̲amharat al-ʿArab, Caire 1948, 130); son père ou son grand-père provenait ¶ | à l’origine de Bād̲j̲arwān (près d’al-Raḳḳa en Mésopotamie; peu probablement du village du même nom en S̲h̲irwān), et l’on prétend, selon des autorités douteuses qu’il aurait été juif. Il étudia sous les principaux philolog…

al-Rāsibī, chef k̲h̲ārid̲j̲ite, tābiʿī de la tribu des Bad̲j̲īla, connu pour sa bravoure et sa piété et surnommé d̲h̲ū l-t̲h̲afināt, l’homme aux callosités, en raison des callosités de son front etc. dues à ses nombreuses prosternations. Il combattit en ʿIrāḳ sous Saʿd b. Abī Waḳḳās et ¶ à Ṣiffīn sous ʿAlī, mais rompit avec celui-ci à l’occasion de la décision d’arbitrage et se joignit aux dissidents à Ḥarūrāʾ. Peu avant leur départ final de Kūfa en s̲h̲awwāl 37/mars 658, les Ḵh̲ārid̲j̲ites élurent ʿAbd Allāh comme chef ( amīr, et non k̲h̲alīfa, comme on l’affirme habituellement), et…

Lūṭ b. Yaḥyā b. Ṣaʿīd b. Mik̲h̲naf al-Azdī, un des premiers traditionnistes et historiens arabes, mort en 157/774. Le Fihrist le nomme comme auteur de 32 monographies sur divers événements de l’histoire des Arabes, survenus particulièrement dans le ʿIrāḳ; la plupart des renseignements qu’ils fournissent se trouvent reproduits dans les chroniques de Balād̲h̲urī et de Ṭabarī. Les ouvrages qui nous sont parvenus sous son nom sont des productions tardives qui lui ont été fictivement attribuées. Son arrière-grand-père …

b. Badr b. al-Ḏj̲ahm al-Sāmī, poète arabe, des Banu Sāma b. Luʾayy, une tribu de Baḥrayn qui prétend descendre de Ḳurays̲h̲, mais le fait est contesté. Son père al-Ḏj̲ahm vint du Ḵh̲urāsān à Bag̲h̲dād et fut nommé à des charges diverses sous al-Maʾmūn et al-Wāt̲h̲iḳ; les frères du poète furent également éminents dans les cercles officiels et littéraires. ʿAlī naquit probablement aux environs de 188/804 et reçut son éducation à Bag̲h̲dād. Sous al-Muʿtaṣim (218-27/833-42), il détint la juridiction des maẓālim à Ḥulwān, mais, peut-être à cause de l’appui qu’il accorda à Aḥmad…

, fondateur d’une lignée de gouverneurs de Baṣra (Āl Afrāsiyāb). C’était un officier dont on ignore l’origine raciale, qui acheta le gouvernement de Baṣra au pas̲h̲a local vers 1021/1612. Le fils d’Afrāsiyāb, ʿAlī, lui succéda en 1034/1624-5, pendant une attaque de Baṣra par les forces persanes, qui échoua en face de la résistance de ʿAlī. Une seconde tentative persane en 1038/1629 ne réussit pas davantage. ʿAlī Pas̲h̲a ne prit aucune part à la lutte turco-persane pour la possession de Bag̲h̲dād…

, fille du calife Abū Bakr par sa femme Ḳutayla bint ʿAbd al-ʿUzzā de ʿĀmir b. Luʾayy. Elle était la demi-sœur de ʿĀʾis̲h̲a, et son aînée, et l’une des premières converties à l’Islam à la Mekke. Au moment de la fuite de Muḥammad de la Mekke avec Abū Bakr, elle déchira sa ceinture en deux afin d’en faire un sac où le Prophète mettrait ses vivres, et une courroie pour son outre; telle est l’explication traditionnelle de son surnom Ḏh̲āt al-niṭāḳayn «Celle aux deux ceintures». Après la hid̲j̲ra, elle devint l’épouse d’al-Zubayr b. al-ʿAwwām [ q.v.], et leur fils ʿAbd Allāh fut considéré comm…

, révolté s̲h̲īʿite. Après avoir été, dit-on, conducteur d’ânes puis brigand, il entra au service de Yazīd b. Mazyad al-S̲h̲aybānī en Arménie, et fut engagé contre les Ḵh̲urramiyya [ q.v.]. Par la suite, il commanda l’avant-garde de l’armée de Yazīd contre Hart̲h̲ama dans la guerre civile entre al-Amīn et al-Maʾmūn, mais il changea ensuite de camp et ¶ rejoignit Hart̲h̲ama. Autorisé à se rendre en pèlerinage à la Mekke, il entra en rébellion ouverte et, après avoir défait les troupes envoyées contre lui, se rendit à al-Raḳḳa. Là, il rencontra le ʿAlide Muḥammad b. Ibrāhīm b. Ṭabāṭabā [ q.v.]…

b. Asad al-Ḳasrī (du clan Ḳasr des Bad̲j̲īla, et non al-Ḳus̲h̲ayrī, comme on l’imprime parfois par erreur), gouverneur du Ḵh̲urāsān en 106-9/724-7 et 117-20/735-8, sous l’autorité de son frère Ḵh̲ālid b. ʿAbd Allāh [ q.v.], gouverneur du ʿIrāḳ et de l’Est, durant le règne de His̲h̲ām b. ʿAbd al-Malik. Sa première période de gouvernorat coïncida avec la pression croissante, contre les Arabes en Transoxiane, des armées turques auxquelles il n’était pas capable de s’opposer efficacement, bien qu’il eût dirigé des expéditions couron…

bi-llāh, Abū l-Ḳāsim Aḥmad b. al-Mustanṣir, neuvième calife fāṭimide, né le 20 muḥarram 467/16 septembre 1074 (ainsi qu’il ressort de toutes les meilleures sources et de la lettre de son père à Aḥmad b. ʿAlī al-Ṣulayḥī citée dans Idrīs, VII, 152), était le plus jeune fils d’al-Mustanṣir. A cette époque, il était généralement admis dans l’organisation ismāʿīlienne que le fils aîné, Nizār (né en 437/1045-6), devait, selon la coutume, succéder à son père à l’imāmat, bien qu’aucune cérémonie d’investiture de la wilāyat al-ʿ ahd ne semble avoir eu lieu. L’influence du tout-puissant…

, Ismāʿīl b. (al-Afḍal) ʿAlī b. (al-Muẓaffar) Maḥmūd b. (al-Manṣūr) Muḥammad b. Taḳī al-Dīn ʿUmar b. S̲h̲āhans̲h̲āh b. Ayyūb, al-Malik al-Muʾayyad ʿImād al-Dīn, prince, historien et géographe syrien de la famille des Ayyūbides [ q.v.], né à Damas en d̲j̲um. Ier 672/ nov. 1273. A l’âge de douze ans, en compagnie de son père et de son cousin al-Muẓaffar Maḥmūd II, prince de Ḥamāh, il assista au siège et à la prise de Marḳab (Margat) (684/1285). Il prit part également aux autres campagnes contre les Croisés. Lorsque fut supprimée la prin…

ʿĀmir b.ʿAbd Allāh b. al-Ḏj̲arrāḥ, de la famille des Balḥārith, appartenant au clan ḳurays̲h̲ite des Fihr, l’un des premiers Mekkois convertis à l’Islam, et l’un des dix Croyants auxquels Muḥammad avait promis le Paradis (voir al-ʿAs̲h̲ara al-Mubas̲h̲s̲h̲ara). On dit qu’il se distinguait par son courage et son abnégation, et que le Prophète lui donna pour cette raison le titre d’amīn. Il avait 41 ans à la bataille de Badr, et il prit part aux campagnes qui suivirent; il se distingua à Uḥud et dirigea plusieurs expéditions. Il fut envoyé par la suite à N…

, nom d’une famille de sayyids et de savants établie à Damas aux XIe et XIIe/ XVIIe-XVIIIe siècles. I. Le fondateur de cette famille, Murād b. ʿAlī al-Ḥusaynī al-Buk̲h̲ārī. né en 1050/1640, était le fils du naḳib al-as̲h̲rāf de Samarḳand. Il fit dans sa jeunesse un voyage dans l’Inde, où il fut initié à la ṭarīḳa naḳs̲h̲bandite par S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Muḥammad Maʿsūm al-Fārūḳī; après de longs voyages à travers la Perse, les pays arabes et l’Égypte, il se fixa à Damas vers 1081/1670. Il se rendit par la suite plusieurs fois à La Mekke et à Istanbul, où il acq…

b. Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn, ou plus complètement al-Malik al-Afḍal Abū l-Ḥasan ʿAlī Nūr al-Dīn, fils aîné de Saladin (Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn [ q.v.]), né en 565/1169-70, mort à Sumaysāṭ en 622/1225. A la mort de Saladin, il fut reconnu comme gouverneur de Damas et chef de la famille ayyūbide, mais son incapacité et son insouciance lui firent perdre successivement Damas, l’Égypte et tous ses fiefs syriens; il finit comme vassal du sultan Sald̲j̲ūḳ de Rūm. Voir l’article Ayyūbides. (H.A.R. Gibb) Bibliography Ibn Ḵh̲allikān, n° 459 Abū S̲h̲āma, Ḏh̲ayl al-Rawḍatayn, 145 Ibn Tag̲h̲rībirdī, Nud̲j̲ūm, VI, index Ma…

, Ḥasan b. Muḥammad, savant égyptien d’origine mag̲h̲ribine, né au Caire après 1180/1766. Il fit ses études à al-Azhar, et fut l’un des rares ʿulamāʾ qui, après l’occupation de l’Égypte par Bonaparte, entrèrent en relations avec les savants français et prirent un vif intérêt à la science moderne. Il passa alors plusieurs années en Syrie et en Turquie, et, à son retour en Égypte, fut employé comme directeur du nouveau journal officiel ( al-Waḳāʾiʿ al-miṣriyya), fondé par Muḥammad ʿAlī (1244/1828). En 1245/1830, il fut nommé S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-Azhar par Muḥammad ʿAlī, avec l…

«Faucon blanc», nom de nombreux officiers turcs, dont les deux suivants sont les plus importants: 1. Aḳ Sunḳur b. ʿAbd Allāh Ḳasīm al-dawla, connu sous le nom d’al-Ḥād̲j̲ib, mamlūk de Maliks̲h̲āh [ q.v.], qui le nomma gouverneur d’Alep en 480/1087. Il soutint d’abord les efforts du prince sald̲j̲ūḳide Tutus̲h̲ [ q.v.] pour s’établir en Syrie, mais après la mort de Malik-s̲h̲āh, il se déclara, avec les autres gouverneurs de la Syrie du Nord et de la Ḏj̲azīra, pour Barkiyāruḳ, et fut battu et exécuté par Tutus̲h̲, près d’Alep, en d̲j̲um. I 487/mai 1094. Il est le père de Zankī [ q.v.], plus tard…

, petit port de pêche sur la côte de Palestine, à 16 km. au Nord de Jaffa. Le nom arabe garde probablement le souvenir de l’ancienne consécration au dieu sémitique Reseph. Sous les Séleucides, il fut rebaptisé Apollonia. Durant les premiers siècles du califat, Arsūf fut une des principales villes fortifiées de la province de Filasṭīn. Il fut occupé par les Croisés sous Baudouin Ier et appelé par eux Azotus; reprise par Saladin en 583/1187, la ville fut la scène d’un engagement entre ce dernier et Richard Ier, le 14 s̲h̲aʿbān 587/6 septembre 1191; rendue aux Croisés par la trêve av…

, plus exactement Āḳā Ḵh̲ān, titre donné aux Imāms des Ismāʿīlīs Nizārīs [ q.v.]. C’était à l’origine un titre honorifique à la cour des Ḳād̲j̲ār S̲h̲āhs de Perse, qui fut porté par Ḥasan ʿAlī S̲h̲āh, lequel, après l’assassinat de son père Ḵh̲alīl Allāh en 1817, gagna la faveur de Fatḥ ʿAlī S̲h̲āh qui lui donna une de ses filles en mariage. À la suite d’intrigues à la cour, Ḥasan ʿAlī S̲h̲āh se révolta en 1838 dans le Kirmān, mais il fut battu et s’enfuit dans le Sind où il rendit d’appréciables services au …

, «Commandeur des Croyants» (la traduction «Prince des Croyants» n’est correcte ni philologiquement ni historiquement), titre adopté par ʿUmar b. al-Ḵh̲aṭṭāb lors de son élection au califat. Amīr, en tant que terme désignant une personne investie d’un commandement ( amr), et plus spécialement d’un commandement militaire, entrait dans ce sens général en composition avec al-muʾminīn pour désigner les chefs de diverses expéditions de Musulmans, tant durant la vie du Prophète qu’après sa mort, par exemple Saʿd b. Abī Waḳḳāṣ [ q.v.], qui commandait l’armée musulmane contre les P…

, cinquième calife de la dynastie umayyade, qui régna de 65 à 86/685 à 705. Selon la plupart des sources, il naquit en 26/646-7; il était le fils de Marwān b. al-Ḥakam [ q.v.] et de ʿĀʾis̲h̲a bint Muʿāwiya b. al-Mug̲h̲īra. A l’âge de dix ans, il fut parmi les témoins oculaires de l’assaut qui fut donné contre la maison de ‘Ut̲h̲mān, et, à seize ans, Muʿāwiya lui donna le commandement des troupes médinoises envoyées contre les Byzantins. Il demeura à Médine jusqu’à la révolte contre Yazïd Ier (62-3/682-3). Lorsque les Umayyades furent chassés par les rebelles, il quitta la ville av…

, surnom poétique d’ al-Ḥārit̲h̲ b. Abī l-ʿAlāʾ Saʿīd b. Ḥamdān al-Tag̲h̲libī, poète arabe né en 320/932, probablement ¶ en ʿIrāḳ. Saʿīd, lui-même poète, fut tué par son neveu Nāṣir al-Dawla Ḥasan, en tentant d’occuper Mawṣil en 323/935. La mère d’Abū Firsās, une umm walad grecque, s’en alla avec son fils à Alep lorsque cette ville fut occupée par le cousin du poète Sayf al-Dawla en 333/944; c’est là qu’il reçut son instruction sous les yeux de Sayf al-Dawla, qui avait également épousé sa sœur. En 336/947-8, il fut nommé gouverneur de Man…

, nom traditionnel du site d’une bataille qui eut lieu en d̲j̲umādā I ou II 13/juilletaoût 634 entre les Arabes musulmans qui envahissaient la Palestine et les Grecs qui la défendaient. Bien que situé par les sources littéraires entre Ramla et Bayt Ḏj̲ibrīn, aucun Heu de ce nom n’est indiqué par les géographes. Du point de vue topographique, le site de la bataille a été localisé par Miednikoff sur le wādī l-Ṣamt au voisinage des deux villages d’al-Ḏj̲annāba (G̲h̲arbiyya et S̲h̲arḳiyya), 34° 57’ …

b. Ḥabīb b. ʿAbd S̲h̲ams b. ʿAbd Manāf b. Kuṣayy, général arabe. A sa conversion, Muḥammad lui donna pour nom ʿAbd al-Raḥmān en remplacement de son nom précédent: ʿAbd al-Kaʿba. Il reçut d’abord, dans les dernières années du califat de ʿUt̲h̲mān, le ¶ commandement du Sid̲j̲istan où il succéda à al- Rabīʿ b. Ziyād. C’est alors qu’il fit la conquête de Zarand̲j̲ et de Zamīn-i Dāwar et passa un traité avec le gouverneur de Kirmān. Il se retira après la mort de ʿUt̲h̲mān; selon des sources chinoises, Pēroz, fils de Yazdigird III, tenta alors de s’établir au Sid̲j̲istān (Chavannes, Documents sur l…

al-Sulamī, gouverneur du Ḵh̲urāsān. Lors de la première expédition de ʿAbd Allāh b. ʿĀmir [ q.v.] au Ḵh̲urāsān en 31/651-2, Ibn Ḵh̲āzim commandait l’avant-garde qui occupa Sarak̲h̲s. Selon certaines informations, il étouffa une révolte fomentée par Ḳārin en 33/653-4 et en fut récompensé par l’octroi du gouvernorat de la province, mais il s’agit probablement d’une anticipation sur les événements de 42/662. Tandis qu’Ibn ʿĀmir occupait pour la seconde fois le poste de gouverneur de Baṣra (41/661), Ḳays b. al-Hay…

al-Mak̲h̲zûmī, le seul fils survivant du célèbre général arabe. A dix-huit ans, il commandait une unité à la bataille du Yarmūk. Par la suite, Muʿāwiya le nomma gouverneur de Ḥimṣ, et il commanda plusieurs des dernières expéditions syriennes en Anatolie. Durant la guerre civile, après s’être opposé avec succès à une expédition ʿirāḳienne dans la Ḏj̲azīra, il rejoignit Muʿāwiya à Ṣiffīn et fut désigné comme porte-étendard. D’après la tradition admise, Muʿāwiya, craignant que ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ne dev…

, port de la côte africaine de la mer Rouge dont les ruines existent encore sur un tertre plat et dépourvu d’eau, à 20 km. au Nord de Ḥalayb (22° 20ˊ N., 36° 29ˊ 32˝ E.). Il est mentionné dès le IIIe/IXe s. comme un port fréquenté par des pèlerins de la Mekke et des marchands du Yémen (al-Yaʿḳūbῑ, 335; cf. BGA, III, 78) ; il était relié à la vallée du Nil par des routes caravanières d’Aswān (15 journées de marche) et de Ḳūṣ (17 journées). Au début petit village de huttes, il prit de l’importance à partir du Ve/XIe s., par suite du commerce croissant de l’Egypte avec le Yémen, et fut particuliè…

Dīvdād (Dēwdādh) b. dīvdast, fondateur de la dynastie sād̲j̲ide, descendant d’une noble famille iranienne d’Us̲h̲rūsana apparentée au souverain local, l’Afs̲h̲īn [ q.v.] Ḥaydar (Ḵh̲ayd̲h̲ar) b. Kāʾus. Il servit sous le commandement de ce dernier pendant la campagne contre Bābak (221-2/836-7). En 224/839, il conduisit l’expédition dirigée contre Mankad̲j̲ūr, subordonné d’Afs̲h̲īn révolté en Ād̲h̲arbayd̲j̲ān. En 242/856 ou 244/858 (voir Ṭabarī, III, 1436), il fut nommé par le calife al-Mutawakkil à la surveillance de …

, savant et écrivain égyp- tien, né au Caire le 2 muḥarram 1304/1er octobre 1886, mort le 30 ramaḍān 1373/30 mai 1954. Après avoir fait ses études à al-Azhar et à l’École de droit s̲h̲arʿī il devint magistrat dans les tribunaux indi- gènes, puis fut nommé en 1926 dans le cadre de l’Université égyptienne, où il exerça de 1936 à 1946 comme professeur de littérature arabe. En 1947, il devint le directeur de la section culturelle de la Ligue arabe. Aḥmad Amīn fut l’un des fonda- teurs et des membres les plus actifs de la Lad̲j̲nat al-taʾlīf wa-l-tard̲j̲ama wa-l-nas̲h̲r (voir U. Rizzitano,| dans OM, 1…

, ou Fāmiya, la ville séleucide d’Apamée sur la rive droite de l’Oronte (ʿĀṣī), à l’endroit où il se courbe vers le Nord, à 40 km. au Nord de Ḥamāh. Pendant la campagne du sāsānide Khosroès Ier en Syrie (540) elle fut prise et dévastée. Après la conquête arabe de la Syrie, elle fut colonisée par des membres des tribus ʿUd̲h̲ra et Baḥrāʾ. Elle ne retrouva de l’importance que comme poste fortifié protégeant Alep pendant la période ḥamdānide et les premières Croisades. Après la désagrégation du pouvoir sald̲j̲ūḳide en Syrie, Afāmiya …

b. Saʿd, fondateur du genre épistolaire arabe, mawlā du clan ḳurays̲h̲ite de ʿĀmir b. Luʾayy. Il était probablement natif d’al-Anbār, et on dit qu’il avait été maître d’école itinérant avant de trouver un emploi dans l’administration umayyade sous le premier secrétaire de His̲h̲ām, le mawlā Sālim; il fut ensuite attaché au service de Marwān b. Muhammad, qu’il continua de servir comme premier secrétaire après son accession au califat. Il se refusa à trahir son maître au moment de ses revers, et l’opinio…

, anti-calife, fils d’al-Zubayr b. al-ʿAwwām [ q.v.], du clan ḳurays̲h̲ite des ʿAbd al-ʿUzzā, et d’Asmāʾ [ q.v.], fille d’Abū Bakr et sœur de ʿĀʾis̲h̲a. Il naquit à Médine vingt mois après la hid̲j̲ra (vers d̲h̲ū l-ḳaʿda 2/mai 624), et fut tué au cours d’un combat contre les troupes syriennes conduites par al-Ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ād̲j̲ le 17 d̲j̲umādā I ou II 73/4 oct. ou 3 nov. 692. Certaines sources (Ibn Ḳutayba, Maʿārif, 116; Ibn Ḥabīb, Muḥabbar, 275, etc.) affirment qu’il fut le premier enfant des Muhād̲j̲irīn qui naquit à Médine. Les liens de proche parenté qui le liaient …

, prétendant fāṭimide, né le 10 rabīʿ I 437/26 septembre 1045. A la mort de son père, ayant été supplanté par son frère plus jeune al-Mustaʿlī [ q.v.], Nizār s’enfuit à Alexandrie, prit le titre d’al-Muṣṭafā li-dīn Allāh et entra en rébellion au début de 488/1095, avec l’aide du gouverneur Naṣr al-dawla Aftakīn, qui était jaloux d’al-Afḍal, et celle de la population de la ville. Il remporta d’abord quelques succès en repoussant al-Afḍal et en s’avançant jusqu’à proximité des abords du Caire, soutenu par des auxiliaires ar…

, title of two Ayyūbid princes: 1. al-Malik al-ʿĀdil Abū Bakr Muḥammad b. Ayyūb , with the honorific title of Sayf al-Dīn ("Sword of the Faith", called by the Crusaders Saphadin ), the brother, assistant, and spiritual heir of Saladin (Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn, [ q.v.]). He was born in Muḥarram 540/June-July 1145, or according to other accounts in 538/1143-4, in Damascus or in Baalbek, thus being six or eight years younger than his celebrated brother. Al-ʿĀdil accompanied Saladin to Egypt in the third and final expedition of S̲h̲īrkūh (564/1169). His first important appointment w…

bi ’llāh , Abū Tamīm Maʿadd b. ʿAlī al-Ẓāhir , eighth Fāṭimid caliph, born on 16 D̲j̲umada II 420/2 July 1029 (according to Idrīs, on 16 Ramaḍān/29 September), succeeded his father al-Ẓāhir [ q.v.] on 15 S̲h̲aʿbān 427/13 June 1036 and died on 18 D̲h̲u ’l-Ḥid̲j̲d̲j̲a 487/10 January 1094, after the longest recorded reign of any Muslim ruler and one which, besides being marked by the most violent fluctuations of fortune, was of critical importance in the history of the Fāṭimid Ismāʿīlī movement. Internal history. During the childhood of al-Mustanṣir, the authority remained at fir…

(a.), literally “substitute, delegate” ( nomen agentis from n-w-b “to take the place of another”), the term applied generally to any person appointed as deputy of another in an official position. 1. In pre-modern usage. The term was used, more especially, in the Mamlūk and Dihlī Sultanates, to designate ( a) the deputy or lieutenant of the sultan, and ( b) the governors of the chief provinces. In the Mamlūk system the former, entitled nāʾib al-salṭana al-muʿaẓẓama wa-kāfil al-mamālik al-s̲h̲arīfa al-islāmiyya , was the vice-sultan proper, who administer…

(a.), literally “substitute, delegate” (nomen agentis from n-w-b “to take the place of another”), the term applied generally to any person appointed as deputy of another in an official position, and more especially, in the Mamlūk and Dihlī Sulṭānates, to designate a. the deputy or lieutenant of the Sulṭān and b. the governors of the chief provinces (see also the article egypt, above, vol. ii., p. 16a). In the Mamlūk system the former, entitled nāʾ ib al-salṭana al-muʿaẓẓama wa-kāfil al-maniālik al-s̲h̲arīfa al-islāmīya, was the Vice-Sulṭān proper, who administered all the te…

, Abū Tamīm Maʿadd b. ʿAlī al-Ẓāhir, eighth Fāṭimid Caliph, born 16th Ḏj̲umādā II, 420 (July 2, 1029) (According to Idrīs, on 16th Ramaḍān = Sept. 29), succeeded his father al-Ẓāhir [q. v.] 15th S̲h̲aʿbān 427 (June 13, 1036), and died 18th Ḏh̲u ’l-Ḥid̲j̲d̲j̲a 487 (Jan. 10, 1094), after the longest recorded reign of any Muslim ruler and one which, besides being marked by the most violent fluctuations of fortune, was of critical importance in the history of the Fāṭimid Ismāʿīlī movement. Internal history. During the childhood of ¶ al-Mustanṣir the authority remained at first in the s…

, Arabicised form of antiocheia, town in northern Syria, situated on the Orontes (ʿĀṣī) river, 14 m. from the Mediterranean coast. Founded about 300 B.C. by Seleucus I, and occupied by Pompey in 64 B.C., it became the largest and most important Roman city in Asia and capital of the Asian provinces of the Roman empire. Its gradual decay dates from the foundation of the Sāsānid empire, which diminished its political and economic influence in the Tigris-Euphrates basin and made it the object of repeate…

(plural of k̲h̲uluḳ , "innate disposition"), ethics. (i) survey of ethics in islam. 1. Islamic ethics took shape only gradually and the tradition of the different elements of which it is composed was not finally established before the 5th/11th century. Unlike the Greek world, in which popular ethics were refined and reshaped by philosophical reasoning without any breach between them, and with no perceptible influence of any foreign doctrine, so that eventually philosophy came to express the moral values by w…

pre-Islamic title borne by the native princes of Us̲h̲rūsana. the mountainous district between Samarḳand and Ḵh̲ud̲j̲anda, including the upper course of the Zarafs̲h̲ān river (Barthold, Turkestan 2, 165-9). The province was subjected to the Arab governors of Ḵh̲urāsān by an expedition commanded by al-Faḍl b. Yaḥyā al-Barmakī in 178/794-5, but it was only after an internal conflict and a second expedition under Aḥmad b. Abī Ḵh̲ālid in 207/822 that the ruling afs̲h̲īn Kāwūs accepted Islām. Kāwūs was succeeded by his son Ḵh̲…

(a.) littéralement «substitut, délégué» ( nomen agentis de n-w-b «prendre la place d’un autre». — 1. Dans l’usage pré-moderne, ce terme s’appliquait généralement à toute personne désignée comme l’envoyé d’une autre en une situation officielle; plus spécialement dans les sultanats des Mamlūks et de Dihlī, il désignait l’envoyé ou lieutenant du sultan et les gouverneurs des provinces principales. Dans le système mamlūk, l’envoyé ou lieutenant du sultan qui portait le titre de nāʾib al-salṭana al-muʿaẓẓama wa-kāfil al-mamālik al-s̲h̲arīfa al-islāmiyya, était le vice-sultan l…

, forme arabisée d’Antiocheia, ville de la Syrie du Nord située sur l’Oronte (al-ʿĀṣī), à 22 km. de la côte méditerranéenne-Fondée vers 300 avant J.-C. par Seleucus Ier et occupée par Pompée en 64 avant J.-C, elle devint la plus grande et la plus importante cité romaine d’Asie et la capitale des provinces asiatiques de l’empire romain. Sa décadence progressive date de la fondation de l’empire sāsānide qui diminua son influence politique et économique dans le bassin du Tigre et de l’Euphrate et l’exposa aux attaques répété…

(pluriel de k̲h̲uluḳ, «disposition innée»), éthique. I. Histoire de l’éthique en Islam; II. Éthique philosophique. 1. Histoire de l’éthique en Islam 1. L’éthique musulmane ne prit forme que graduellement et la tradition des différents éléments dont elle est composée ne fut pas définitivement établie avant le Ve/XIe siècle. Contrairement au. monde grec, dans lequel l’éthique populaire était raffinée et remodelée par le raisonnement philosophique sans qu’il y ait rupture de continuité entre eux deux, et sans influence perceptible d’aucune doc…

, titre préislamique porté par les princes indigènes de l’Us̲h̲rūsana, territoire montagneux entre Samarḳand et Ḵh̲ud̲j̲anda, englobant le cours supérieur de la rivière Zarafs̲h̲ān (Barthold, Turkestan 2, 165-9). La province fut soumise aux gouverneurs arabes du Ḵh̲urāsān, par une expédition commandée par al-Faḍl b. Yaḥyā al-Barmakī en 178/794-5, mais ce fut seulement après une révolte, et une seconde expédition sous Aḥmad b. Abī Ḵh̲ālid en 207/822 que l’afs̲h̲īn régnant Kāwūs accepta l’Islam. À Kāwūs succéda son fils Ḵh…

, or ʿarafāt , plain about 21 km. (13 miles) east of Mecca, on the road to Ṭāʾif, bounded on the north by a mountain-ridge of the same name. The plain is the site of the central ceremonies of the annual Pilgrimage to Mecca; these are focussed on a conical granite hill in its N.E. corner, under 200 feet in height, and detached from the main ridge; this hill also is called ʿArafa, but more commonly Ḏj̲abal al-Raḥma (Hill of Mercy). On its eastern flank, broad stone steps (constr…

ou ʿArafāt, plaine à environ 21 km. à l’Est de la Mekke, sur la route d’al-Ṭāʾif, limitée au Nord par une crête portant le même nom. La plaine est le lieu où se déroulent les cérémonies centrales du pèlerinage annuel à la Mekke; celles-ci sont centrées sur une colline conique de granit située dans l’angle Nord-est, de moins de 60 m. de haut et détachée de la chaîne principale; cette colline est également appelée ʿArafa, mais plus communément Ḏj̲abal al-Raḥma (colline de la Miséricorde). Sur son f…

bi-llāh, Abū Tamīm Maʿadd b. ʿAlī al-Ẓāhir, huitième calife fāṭimide. Né le 16 d̲j̲umādā II 420/2 juillet 1029 (d’après Idrīs, le 16 ramaḍān/29 septembre), il succéda à son père al-Ẓāhir [ q.v.] le 15 s̲h̲aʿbān 427/13 juin 1036 et mourut le 18 d̲h̲ū l-ḥid̲j̲d̲j̲a 487/10 janvier 1094, après le règne le plus long que connaisse l’histoire des souverains musulmans, et qui non seulement fut marqué par les plus grandes vicissitudes, mais encore revêtit une importance capitale dans l’histoire du mouvement fāṭimide ismāʿīlien. ¶ Histoire intérieure. Pendant l’enfance d’al-Mustanṣir, le …

I. Géographie. II. Ethnographie. III. Langues. IV. Religion. V. Histoire. I. — Géographie. Le pays connu actuellement sous le nom d’Afghanistan ne porte ce nom que depuis le milieu du ¶ XVIIIe siècle, quand fut assurée la suprématie de la race afghane. Auparavant les différentes provinces portaient des noms distincts, mais le pays n’était pas une unité politique bien définie, et les parties dont il se compose n’étaient liées les unes aux autres par aucune identité de race ni de langue. L’ancienne signification de ce terme éta…

Afshīn was a title borne by a family of Central Asian rulers, dating from pre-Islamic times; one of these rulers, known in Arabic sources as al-Afshīn (d. 226/841), became a military leader under the caliphs al-Maʾmūn (r. 198–218/813–833) and al-Muʿtaṣim (r. 218–27/833–42). The rulers of Ushrūsana, the mountainous district between Samarqand and Khujanda (Barthold, 165–9), bore this title, and al-Yaʿqūbī ( Taʾrīkh, 2:479) lists the Afshīn of “Usrūshana” among the chiefs of Transoxania and Central Asia that pledged nominal loyalty to the caliph al-Mahdī. Th…

Langue et littérature arabes. A. —La langue arabe (ʿ Arabiyya). I. — L’arabe pré-classique. 1. — Place de l’arabe parmi les langues sémitiques. 2. — L’arabe primitif («proto-arabique»). 3. — L’arabe ancien (IIIe-VIe siècles de J.-C.). II. — La langue littéraire. 1. — L’arabe classique. 2. — Le moyen arabe ancien. 3. — Le moyen arabe. 4. — L’arabe moderne.¶ III. — Les dialectes arabes. 1. — Vue générale. 2. — Les dialectes orientaux. 3. — Les dialectes occidentaux. B. — Littérature arabe. Al-ʿarabiyya, autrement dit lug̲h̲a ou lisān al-ʿArab désigne: — 1. La langue arabe sous toutes …