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, the archangel Michael [cf. malāʾika], whose name occurs once in the Ḳurʾān, viz. in sūra ii. 92: “Whosoever is an enemy to Allāh, or his angels, or his apostles, or to Gabriel or to Michael, verily Allāh is an enemy to the unbelievers”. In explanation of this verse two stories are told. According to the first, the Jews, wishing to test the veracity of the mission of Muḥammad, asked him several questions, on all of which he gave the true answer. Finally they asked him who transmitted the revelations…

(a.), part. pass. IV from ṭ-l-ḳ, “to loose the bond ( ḳaid) of an animal, so as to let it free” (e.g. Muslim, Ḏj̲ihād, trad. 46; Abū Dāwūd, Ḏj̲ihād, bāb 100). The term is also applied ¶ to the loosening of the bowstring (Buk̲h̲ārī, Ḏj̲ihād, b. 170), of the garments, the hair etc. Thence the common meaning absolute, as opposed to restricted ( muḳaiyad), and further the accusative muṭlaḳan “absolutely”. The use of the term is so widely diffused, that a few examples only can be given. In grammar the term mafʿūl muṭlaḳ denotes the absolute object (cognate accusative), i. e. the objectivate…

b. al-Ḍaḥḥāk b. Zaid b. Lawd̲h̲ān b. ʿAmr b. ʿAbd Manāf (or ʿAwf) b. G̲h̲anm b. Mālik b. al-Nad̲j̲d̲j̲īr al-Anṣārī al-Ḵh̲azrad̲j̲ī, one of the Companions of Muḥammad, best known through his part in the editing of the Ḳurʾān. His father was killed in the battle of Buʿāt̲h̲ [q. v.], five years before the hid̲j̲ra, when Zaid was six years old. His ¶ mother was al-Nawār, daughter of Mālik b. Muʿāwiya b. ʿAdī, also of a Madīnd̲j̲ad̲j̲ family. It is said that the boy knew already a number of Sūras when Muḥammad settled in al-Madīna. At any rate he became his secretary, who rec…

, the mosque built on the site of the Temple in Jerusalem. The name means “the remotest sanctuary” and is first found in the Ḳurʾān, Sūra xvii. 1: “Praise ʿilm who made his servant journey in the night from the holy place to the remotest sanctuary, which we have surrounded with blessings to show him of our signs”. As was explained in the article isrāʾ [q. v.], the older exegesis refers this verse to the journey to heaven [cf. miʿrād̲j̲] and sees in the name al-Masd̲j̲id al-Aḳṣā a reference to some heavenly place (cf. Sidrat al-Muntahā, Sūra liii. 14). This explanation had however in time to g…

(in European literature one also finds ʿAzrāʾīl), the name of the angel of death, one of the four archangels (next to Ḏj̲ibrīl, Mīk̲h̲āʾīl, Isrāfīl). The name is perhaps a corruption of which is given by Eisenmenger, Entdecktes Judenthum, ii. 333, as the name of the prince of Hell. Like Isrāfīl, whose office of trumpet-blower at the last judgment is sometimes given to him, he is of cosmic magnitude; if the water of all the seas and rivers were poured on his head, not a drop would reach the earth. He has a seat ( sarīr) of light in the fourth or seventh heaven, on which one of his feet re…

(a., plural sad̲j̲id̲j̲id, sad̲j̲ād̲j̲īd, sawād̲j̲id), the carpet on which the ṣalāt is performed. The word is found neither in the Ḳorʾān nor in the canonical Ḥadīt̲h̲; the article itself, however, was known at quite an early period, as may be seen from the traditions about to be mentioned. In the Ḥadīt̲h̲ we are often told how Muḥammad and his followers performed the ṣalāt on the floor of the mosque in Medīna after a heavy shower of rain with the result that their noses and heads came in contact with the mud (e. g. al-Buk̲h̲ārī, Ad̲h̲ān, bāb 135, 151; Muslim, Ṣiyām, trad. 214—216, 218 etc.)…

(Plur. Farāʿina), Pharaoh. The word is explained by the commentaries on Sūra ii. 46 of the Ḳorʾān as a laḳab or ʿalam of the Amalakite kings, like Kisrā and Ḳaiṣar of the Kings of the Persians and Romans. The verb tafarʿana means “to be arrogant and tyrannous”, hence the Ḳorʾānic Firʿawn is called al-Ḏj̲abbār “the tyrant” by al-Yaʿḳūbī (ed. Houtsma), i. 31. A number of Firʿawns are mentioned in Arabic literature; their number is very differently given. In the Ḳorʾān, however, Firʿawn is always the kfng with whom Mūsā and Hārūn had to deal; the word is here clearly understood as a proper name. The …

, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. ʿAmr Abū ʿAmr, a jurist born in Baʿalbekk 88 (757). Later he lived in Damascus and Bairūt. Nothing else is known abut his life, his good character and asceticism are emphasized; he died in his bath in the year 157 (774) and was buried in the Ḳibla of the mosque in Bairūt. — Al-Awzāʿī during his life-time was a star of the first magnitude. He is said to have been the Imām of Syria and even the Mag̲h̲rib and Spain are said to have followed his Mad̲h̲hab. His influence soon declined in favour of that of Abū Ḥanīfa and of Mālik. Hardly any data about hi…

, properly ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. ʿAbd Allāh, Arab poet, who lived in Kūfa in the second half of the i. (vii.) cent. He was married to a sister of the theologian al-S̲h̲aʿbī, and he, again, had married a sister of al-Aʿs̲h̲ā. The role which he played under ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. al-As̲h̲ʿat̲h̲ is best known. He took part in his campaign against the Turks and was taken captive but escaped with the aid of a Turkish woman whose passions were enflamed for him. When Ibn al-As̲h̲ʿat̲h̲ turned against al-Ḥad̲j̲d…

, the name of a month, which is found as early as in inscriptions from Palmyra (see S. A. Cook, A Glossary of the Aramaic Inscriptions, s. v.) and corresponds to Marḥes̲h̲wān. It later appears among the Syriac names of the months (see Payne Smith, Thesaurus Syrd., s.v.) as K. ḳed̲ēm or ḳad̲māyā and K. ḥrāy or ḥrāyā. Here the two K. are the ninth and tenth months respectively. Al-Bīrūnī, Kitāb al-Āt̲h̲ār al-bāḳiya, ed. Sachau, p. 60, transcribes the Syriac forms exactly as K. ḳadīm and K. ḥrāy. In Arabic terminology they are called K. al-awwal and K. al-āk̲h̲ir, In the Ḥadīt̲h̲ the former app…

, nisba [cf. nasaf] of several eminent persons of whom the following may be mentioned: I. Abu ’l-Muʿīn Maimūn b. Muḥammad b. Muḥammad ... b. Makḥūl ... al-Ḥanafī al-Makḥūlī (d. 508 = 1114), one of the mutakallimūn [q. v.] whose scholastic position is between that of the early period as represented by ʿAbd al-Ḳāhir al-Bag̲h̲dādī [q. v.], who is still endeavouring to find a convenient arrangement and an adequate formulation of the contents of kalām, and the younger mutakallims who have at hand the necessary formulas for ready use. Of his works the following are known to me: 1. Tamhīd li-Ḳawāʿid…

(a.), sermon, address by the k̲h̲aṭīb [ q.v.]. The k̲h̲uṭba has a fixed place in Islamic ritual, viz. in the Friday-service, in the celebration of the two festivals, in services held at particular occasions such as an eclipse or excessive drought. On the Friday it precedes the ṣalāt , in all the other services the ṣalāt comes first. A short description of the rules for the k̲h̲uṭba according to al-S̲h̲īrāzī ( Tanbīh , ed. Juynboll, 40), one of the early S̲h̲āfiʿī doctors [ q.v.], may be given here. (a.) One of the conditions for the validity of the Friday service is that it must be…

(a.), usually rendered "patience, endurance". The significance of this conception can hardly be conveyed in a West European language by a single word, as may be seen from the following. According to the Arabic lexicographers, the root ṣ-b-r , of which ṣabr is the nomen actionis, means to restrain or bind; thence ḳatalahu ṣabr an “to bind and then slay someone”. The slayer and the slain in this case are called ṣābir and maṣbūr respectively. The expression is applied, for example, to martyrs and prisoners of war put to death; in the Ḥadīt̲h̲ often to animals that— c…

(a.). 1. The name of a fountain in Paradise, occurring in the Ḳurʾān, LXXXIII, 27, where it is said that its water will be drunk by the muḳarrabūn “those who are admitted to the divine presence” and that it will be mixed with the drink of the mass of the inhabitants of Paradise. The commentaries are uncertain whether tasnīm is a proper name— which, according to the Lisān al-ʿArab , is inconsistent with its being a diptote—or a derivative from the root s-n-m, a root conveying the meaning of “being high” (cf. sanām “camel’s hump”). In the latte…

(a.), passive participle of form IV verb ṭ-l-ḳ , “to loose the bond ( ḳayd ) of an animal, so as to let it free” (e.g. Muslim, D̲j̲ihād , trad. 46; Abū Dāwūd, D̲j̲ihād, bāb 100). The term is also applied to the loosening of the bowstring (al-Buk̲h̲ārī, D̲j̲ihād, bāb 170), of the garments, the hair, etc. Thence the common meaning absolute, as opposed to restricted ( muḳayyad ), and further the accusative muṭlaḳ an “absolutely”. The use of the term is so widely diffused that a few examples only can be given. In grammar, the term mafʿūl muṭlaḳ denotes the absolute object (…

(a.), nomen loci from w-ḳ-f “to stand” hence “place of standing”. Of the technical meanings of the term, three may be mentioned here: (a) The place where the wuḳūf [ q.v.] is held during the pilgrimage, viz. ʿArafāt [ q.v.] and Muzdalifa [ q.v.] or D̲j̲amʿ. In well-known traditions, Muḥammad declares that all ʿ Arafāt and all Muzdalifa is mawḳif (Muslim, Ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ , trad. 149; Abū Dāwūd, Manāsik , bāb 56, 64, etc.; cf. Wensinck, Handbook of early Muhammadan tradition, s.v. ʿArafa). Snouck Hurgronje ( Het mekkaansche feest , 150 = Verspreide Geschriften , i, 99) ha…

(a.), covering, protection, shelter, especially at the ṣalāt , where sutra means the object which the worshipper places in front of himself or lays in the direction of the ḳibla , whereby he shuts himself off in an imaginary area within which he is not disturbed by human or demoniacal influences. “The fictitious fencing off of an open place of prayer, the sutra, seems to have had among other objectives that of warding off demons” (Wellhausen, Reste 2, 158). In one tradition, the man who deliberately penetrates into this imaginary area is actually called a s̲h̲ayṭān (al-Buk̲h̲ārī, Ṣalāt , bāb …

In the treatment of ceremonial law in ḥadīt̲h̲ and fiḳh this term is applied to the odd number of rakʿa’s which are performed at night. For details see below. ¶ I. a. Witr ( watr is also admitted) does not occur in this sense in the Ḳurʾān, but frequently in ḥadīt̲h̲, which in this case also discloses to us a piece of the history of the institution, which is probably a continuation of the history of the fixation of the daily ṣalāt’s, as the traditions on witr presuppose the five daily ṣalāt’s. Some traditions even go so far as to call witr an additional ṣalāt of an obligatory nature (see also belo…

(a.), part. pass. II of ṣ-l-w, place where the ṣalāt is performed on certain occasions. When Muḥammad had fixed his abode in Madīna, he performed the ordinary ṣalāt’s in his dār, which was also his masd̲j̲id (not in the sense of temple). The extraordinary ṣalāt’s, however, were performed on a place situated southwest of the city in the territory of the Banū Salima, outside the wall, northeast of the bridge on the wādī, where at present the street from the suburb al-ʿAnbarīya reaches the market-place Barr al-Munāk̲h̲a (cf. Burton, Personal Narrative, plan opp. i. 256; picture of the m…

, the son of the patriarch Ibrāhīm, is mentioned several times in the Ḳurʾān. In Sūra ii. 130 (= iii. 78) and iv. 161 it is said of him that he received revelations. In xix. 55 he is called a messenger and prophet, who summoned his people to ṣalāt and zakāt. These references fit in very well with Muḥammad’s account of the religion of Ibrāhīm. In Sūra ii. 127, he is called one of the fathers of Jacob, along with Ibrāhīm and Isḥāḳ; and in ii. 119, he, along with Ibrāhīm, is commanded to purify the Holy House at Mecca. Tradition knows nothing of Ismāʿīl as a messenger nor of his revelations nor h…

(a.), custom, use and wont, statute. The word is used in many connections. Here only the following will be dealt with. In the Ḳurʾān sunna usually occurs in two connections: sunnat al-awwalīn, “the sunna of those of old” (viii. 39; xv. 13; xviii. 53; xxxv. 41) and sunnat Allāh, “the sunna of Allāh” (xvii. 79; xxxiii. 62; xxxv. 42; xlviii. 23). The two expressions are synonymous in so far as they refer to Allāh’s punishment of earlier generations, who met the preaching of prophets sent to them with unbelief or scorn. The expressions are theref…

, the Messiah; in Arabic (where the root m-s-ḥ has the meanings of “to measure” and “stroke”) it is a loanword from the Aramaic where was used as a name of the Redeemer. Horovitz ( Koranische Untersuchungen, p. 129) considers the possibility that it was taken over from the Ethiopie ( niasīḥ). Muḥammad of course got the word from the Christian Arabs. In Arab writers we find the view mentioned that the word is a loanword from Hebrew or Syriac. Ṭabarī ( Tafsīr on Sūra iii. 40: vol. in., p. 169) gives only purely Arabic etymologies, either with the meaning “purified” (from sins) …

, name of the tenth month of the lunar year. In the Ḳurʾān (Sūra ix. 2) four months are mentioned during which, in the year 9 a. h., the Arabs could move in their country without exposing themselves to attacks (cf. “the sacred months” in verse 5). These four months were, according to the commentaries, S̲h̲awwāl, Ḏh̲u ’l-Ḳaʿda, Ḏh̲u ’l-Ḥid̲j̲d̲j̲a and Muḥarram. In Ḥadīt̲h̲ S̲h̲awwāl is therefore among “the months of pilgrimage mentioned in Allāh’s Book” (al-Buk̲h̲ārī, Ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲, bāb 33, 37). In pre-islāmic times S̲h̲awwāl was considered ill-omened for the conclusion of marriages ( Lisān ¶…

(the printed edition of Zamak̲h̲s̲h̲arī’s Kas̲h̲s̲h̲āf gives the form Bunyāmīn), one of the sons of Jacob. The Muḥammadan stories of Benjamin agree in their main points with the Biblical narrative; there are however some additions which are connected with Rabbinical legends. The non-Biblical elements take the following form: when Joseph’s brothers visited him, he had a feast prepared for them and made them ¶ sit at it in pairs. Binyāmīn was thus left out and began to weep and said: “If only Joseph were alive, he would take me with him”. Joseph heard this, p…

b. al-Ahtam al-Tamīmī al-Minkarī, a member of a poetically gifted family; and himself fond of using metre and rhyme. He must have been born shortly before the Hid̲j̲ra; for in the year 9 (630) when he came to Medīna with the embassy of his tribe, he is said to have been a youth. In the year 11 (632) he followed the prophetess Sad̲j̲āḥ, but was later converted to Islām and took part in the wars of conquest. He informed ʿOmar in verse of the capture of Rās̲h̲ahr. — Little of his poetry is preserved; …

, the name of a man, who is twice mentioned in the Ḳurʾān. Sūra xix. 57 sq.: “Mention Idrīs in the book. Verily he was an upright man, a prophet and we raised him to a high place”. And Sūra xxi. 85, mentions him alorig with Ismāʿīl and Ḏh̲u ’l-Kifl as one of the patient ( ṣābirūn) ones. These passages are not calculated to give any explanation of this character. Even the name was for long a puzzle to orientalists till Nöldeke pointed out that it probably concealed the name Andreas ( Zeitschr. für Assyr., xvii. 84 sq.). That this Andreas who was raised to a high place, is Alexander’s cook wh…

(a.), lord, God, master of a slave. Pre-Islāmic Arabia probably applied this term to its gods or to some of them. In this sense the word corresponds to the terms like Baʿal, Adon in the Semitic languages of the north where rabb means “much, great”. — In one of the oldest sūras (cvi. 3) Allāh is called the “lord of the temple”. Similarly al-Lāt bore the epithet al-Rabba, especially at Ṭāʾif where she was worshipped in the image of a stone or of a rock. — In the Ḳurʾān rabb (especially with the po…

, the palladium of Islām, situated almost in the centre of the great mosque in Mecca. I. The Kaʿba and its immediate neighbourhood. The name, not originally a proper name, is connected with the cube-like appearance of the building. It is however only like a cube at the first impression; in reality the plan is that of an irreguiar rectangle. The wall facing northeast, in which the door is (the front of the Kaʿba) and the opposite wall (back) are 40 feet long: the two other are about 35 feet long. The height is 50 feet. The Kaʿba is built of layers of the grey stone produced by the hills sur…

(a.), infintive V of s̲h̲-h-d, the recitation of the s̲h̲ahāda [q.v.], especially in the ṣalāt. It must, however, be kept in mind that in this case s̲h̲ahāda comprises not only the kalimatāni, but l°. the following formula: “To Allāh belong the blessed salutations and the good prayers”; 2°. the formula: “Hail upon thee, O Prophet, and Allāh’s mercy and His blessing; hail ¶ upon us and upon Allāh’s pious servants”; 3°. the s̲h̲ahāda proper, consisting of the kalimatāni. The above form of tas̲h̲ahhud is in keeping with a tradition on the authority of Ibn ʿAbbās, beginning t…

Abū ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Aḥmad b. S̲h̲uʿaib b. ʿAlī b. Baḥr b. Sinān, author of one of the six canonical collections of traditions [cf. ḥadīt̲h̲], d. 303 (915). Very little is known about him. He is said to have made extensive travels in order to hear traditions, to have settled in Egypt, afterwards in Damascus, and to have died in consequence of ill-treatment to which he was exposed at Damascus or, according to others, at Ramla, in consequence of his feelings in favour of ʿAlī and against the Umaiyads. On account of this u…

(a.), the pilgrimage to Mecca, ʿArafāt and Minā, the last of the five “pillars” of Islām. I. The islāmic Ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲. a. The journey to Mecca. According to the law every adult Muslim, of either sex, has to perform the Ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ at least once in the course of his life, provided he is able to do so (cf. Sūra iii. 91). The fulfilment of the last proviso depends on various circumstances. Lunatics and slaves are exempted from the obligation; likewise women who have not a husband or a relative ( d̲h̲ū maḥram) to accompany them. The want of the necessary means of subsistence, the inability …

(P.), master, teacher, artisan. This word has passed into Arabic, with the plural ostād̲h̲ūn, asātid̲h̲a. It also means eunuch, musician, merchant’s ledger, in the modern language particularly teacher. Combined with dār the form ostādār, “master of the house”, major-domo, was applied to one of the great dignitaries of the Mamlūk sulṭāns [q. v.]. We also find the abbreviated forms ostā, osṭā, ōsṭā, plural ostawāt, osṭawāt, ōstawāt, which in Cairo is applied to coachmen. (A. J. Wensinck) Bibliography the lexicons of Vullers, Lane, Dozy C. A. Nallino, Varabo parlato in Egitto, second e…

(a.), the recommendation, or permission to perform the ritual ablution with sand instead of water in certain cases, is based on two passages in the Ḳurʾān, Sūra iv. 46 and v. 9. The latter passage runs as follows: “And if ye be impure, wash yourselves. But if ye be sick, or on a journey or if ye come from the privy or ye have touched women and ye find no water, take fine clean sand and rub your faces and hands with it. Allāh will not put a difficulty upon you but He will make you pure and comple…

(a.). According to some Arabie lexicographers the meaning of this term is time of birth in contra-distinction to mawlid which may denote also “place of birth”. The latter is the usual term for birthday, especially in connection with the birthday of Muḥammad and Muslim saints [cf. the art. mawlid]; mīlād denotes also Christmas. For other special meanings cf. Dozy, Supplément aux dictionnaires arabes, s. v. (A. J. Wensinck) Bibliography the Arabic lexicons.

(a.), infinitive III of ḳāsa, deduction by analogy. The term is used with a multitude of meanings; cf. the lexicons, especially Dozy, Supplément, s. v. Here we shall confine ourselves to ḳiyās as one of the “roots” of the fiḳh, i. e. the deduction of legal prescriptions from the Ḳurʾān and the sunna by reasoning by analogy. — The death of Muḥammad deprived the community of the means of obtaining revelations and at the same time of its guide in matters political and religious. At first they relied on the book of Allāh and the example of the Prophet. The Ḳurʾān and the sunna naturally became the gu…

(a.), etymologically: what is apparent to the eye, as a technical term: text. In this sense the word does not occur in the Ḳurʾān nor in the Ḥadīt̲h̲. Al-S̲h̲āfiʿī, on the other hand, appears to be acquainted with it. In his Risāla he uses it chiefly in the sense of naṣṣu kitābin (p. 7, 16, 30, 41) or naṣṣu ḥukmin (p. 5) “what has been laid down in the Ḳurʾān”. In other passages naṣṣ al-kitāb is distinguished from sunna (p. 21, 4, infra, 24, 7, paen., 30, 21, 63, 31). The combination naṣṣ sunna occurs, however, also (p. 50, 14, 66, 2). From these passages it may also appear that al-S̲h̲…

(the forms Yaʾd̲j̲ūd̲j̲ and Maʾd̲j̲ūd̲j̲ occur also), Gog and Magog (cf. Gen. x. 2; Ez. xxxviii., xxxix), two peoples who belong to the outstanding figures of Biblical and Muslim eschatology. Magog in Gen. x. is reckoned among the offspring of Japheth; this notion is also found in Arabic sources (e. g. Baiḍāwī on sūra xviii. 93, where also different traditions are mentioned); this much only may be said here, that the Bible as well the Arabic sources connect these peoples with the North-East of the ancient world, the dwelling-p…

(a.), Ethiopie loanword (cf. Nöldeke, Neue Beilräge, p. 49 sq.; the forms miṣḥaf and maṣḥaf occur also; According to some grammarians they are less correct, especially the latter), codex, or, according to the definition of Arabic lexicographers, leaves ( ṣuḥuf plural of ṣaḥifa), when they are bound together between two covers. In the tradition on the redaction of the Ḳurʾān [q. v.] by Hud̲h̲aifa b. al-Yamān during ʿUt̲h̲mān’s caliphate, it is said indeed, that the collection of leaves that had been made by Zaid b. T̲h̲ābit at ʿUmar’s instigation, was copied and arranged into maṣāḥif. The…

, i. e. lord of the faithful. ʿOmar was the first to bear this title. In the East the Umaiyad and ʿAbbāsid caliphs followed his example, as did those of their opponents who thought themselves entitled to claim the Caliphate (ʿAlids, Ḳarmaṭes, Fāṭimids). It was not till the fall of Bag̲h̲dād (656 = 1258) ¶ that the smaller rulers in the East also styled themselves Amīr al-Muʾminīn. In the West the title occurs more frequently: it was borne by the Rostemids, Ag̲h̲labids, Zīrids, Ḥammādids, the Umaiyads after 316 (928) and some of the petty Spanish kings. On the o…

, 1. name of a fountain in Paradise, occurring in the Ḳurʾān, Sūra lxxxiii. 27, where it is said, that its water will be drunk by the muḳarrabūn, “those who are admitted to the divine presence”, and that it will be mixed with the drink of the mass of the inhabitants of Paradise. The commentaries are uncertain, whether tasnīm is a proper name — which, according to the Lisān is inconsistent with its being a diptote — or a derivative from the root s-n-m, a root conveying the meaning of “being high”. In the latter case the meaning of the verse would be: “and it (viz. the drink of …

(plur. k̲h̲aṭāyā and k̲h̲aṭīʾāt), sin, synonymous with d̲h̲anb. The root k̲h̲-ṭ-ʾ has the meaning of stumbling (in Hebrew: Proverbs, xix. 2), committing an error ( ak̲h̲ṭaʾa is said e.g. of the bowman whose arrow misses the aim); see the art. k̲h̲aṭaʾ. The definition of k̲h̲aṭīʾa is “a sin committed on purpose”; that of k̲h̲iṭʾ (see Sūra xvii. 33) simply “a sin”, whereas it̲h̲m is applied to heavy sins. Probably these theological distinctions belong to the Islāmic period only; it seems doubtful whether the pagan Arabs were acquainted with the term k̲h̲aṭīʾa at all. It occurs in the dīwān of…

occurs in the Ḳurʾān only in Sūra 89, 6: “(5) Hast thou not seen how thy Lord dealt with ʿĀd, (6) Iram d̲h̲āt al-Imād, the like whereof hath not been created in the lands”. — The connection between ʿĀd and Iram in these verses may be interpreted in various ways, as the commentaries explain at length. If Iram is taken in contrast to ʿĀd, it is intelligible why Iram also has been taken as a tribal name; Imād could then be taken in the sense of “tent-pole”. According to others, the poles are a description of the giant figure of the Iram, which is thus particularly emphasised. If Iram stands in iḍāfa to ʿĀd,…

(a., plural Ṣulub, Ṣulbān), the cross. This general meaning occurs in several special applications, e. g. to the wasm branded in the skin of camels in the form of a cross etc. In the sense of the chief Christian symbol the word may have been taken over from Aramaic where it has the same form. It does not occur in the Ḳorʾān. In Ḥadīt̲h̲ it is used in eschatological descriptions. ʿĪsā (Jesus) will reappear in the last days, combat the Antichrist (al-Dad̲j̲d̲j̲āl), kill the swine and break the cross into pieces (al-Buk̲h̲ārī, Anbiyāʾ, bāb 49; Muslim, Īmān, Trad. 242, 243; Ibn Mād̲j̲a, Fitan, bāb 3…

(a.), infinitive of form II of the verb labbā, which is formed from the term labbaika to mean “to pronounce the formula labbaika” etc. Labbaika is connected — and probably rightly — by the Arab lexicographers with labb un which means “offering devoted service” as labbaika does “at your service”. According to the native grammarians labbai is a „frequentative” dual. It is difficult to say what is the significance of the element ai in this and similar forms like saʿdaika. The explanation from the Hebrew proposed by Dozy ( De Isrdëliten te Mekka, Haarlem 1864, p. 120) may be said to be now…

, 27th or 26th (when it precedes hāʾ; this is the sequence in some dictionaries), letter of the Arabic alphabet, with the numerical value of 6. For its palaeographical pedigree, see ababia, plate i. — It belongs to the group of the labials ( al-ḥurūf al-s̲h̲afawīya) as well as to that of the soft letters ( ḥurūf al-līn). It is pronounced like English w. In the north-Semitic languages and sometimes in Ethiopie, its place at the beginning of words is taken by y. In a few cases it corresponds with m (cf. urd̲j̲uwān “purple” with Aramaic and Hebrew ). (A. J. Wensinck) Bibliography W. Wright, Comparativ…

, name of an oasis situated between Ṭāʾif and Nak̲h̲la. The Arab philologists derive the name from the root meaning ‘to retain’, in the middle forms’to assemble’or from the meaning of ‘concourse’. Both interpretations are based on the fact that ʿOkāẓ was primarily celebrated for its annual fair, which was held on the 1st—20th Ḏh̲u’l-Ḳaʿda and was at the same time an official occasion of mufāk̲h̲ara, i. e. a gathering of tribes or rather of groups and individuals belonging to the same tribe where individuals competed for honours and for the honour of their tribe. These assemblies to which …

, “the people of the cave”. This is the term used in the Ḳorʾān to denote the youths who in the West are commonly called “the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus”. This is the story almost as Muḥammad tells it (Sūra 18, 8 et seq.): Some youths in a pagan town are loyal to the one God; they conceal themselves in a cave, whose entrance is on the north side. There God puts them and their dog to sleep. “And if you had come upon them you would have fled thence and been filled with terror.” After 309 years the sleepers awake and send one of their number…

(a.), staff, spear (see Lisān vii. 257). In the Muslim ritual the ʿanaza first appears in the year 2 (624). When Muḥammad for the first time celebrated the festival of Breaking the Fast, Bilāl carried a spear before him on his way to the muṣallā; during the service this spear was planted in the ground and served as sutra [q. v.]. Precisely the same thing was done on the occasion of the other festival (10th Ḏh̲u ’l-Ḥid̲j̲d̲j̲a). — The custom of carrying a spear or staff was observed and expanded by Muḥammad’s successors. It has become the rule for the preacher to hold …

This is the name given by the commentators to Pharaoh’s wife, who is twice (28, 8; 66, 11) mentioned in the Ḳorʾān. She plays the same part as Pharaoh’s daughter in the Bible, so that there is obviously confiusion. In the last mentioned passage these words are put into her mouth: “My lord, build me a house with thee in Paradise, and deliver me from Pharaoh and his doings and deliver me from the wicked”. In connection with this passage it is related that Āsiya endured many cruelties at the hands…

, the twenty-fifth letter of the Arabic alphabet, with the numerical value of 50, belonging to the group of liquids ( al-ḥurūf al-d̲h̲alḳīya), and as such subject to numerous changes and assimilations; cf. the Bibliography, ¶ On the palaeographic history of the character, cf. arabia, plate i. (A. J. Wensinck) Bibliography W. Wright, Lectures on the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages, Cambridge 1890, p. 67 H. Zimmern, Vergl. Grammatik der sem. Sprachen, Leipzig 1898, p. 31—32 Brockelmann, Précis de linguistique sémitique, transl. by W. Marçais and M. Cohen, Paris 19…

b. ʿAbd S̲h̲ams b. ʿAbd Manāf Abu ’l-Walīd, one of the chiefs of the tribe of Ḳurais̲h̲, who refused to follow Muḥammad. He met his death in the battle of Badr. His daughter Hind was the wife of Abū Sufyān [q. v.]. Shocked by the number of adherents of Muḥammad, ʿOtba having consulted the other chiefs of the Ḳurais̲h̲, went to the Prophet to offer him anything he would care to ask if he would only abandon his propaganda. According to the traditional story, Muḥammad in reply only repeated a part of Sūra XLI, which made such an impression…

, the name of a hot wind in several Arabic speaking countries. The word occurs in three passages of the Ḳurʾān, where it is, however, not especially applied to the wind. Sūra 15, 27 it is said that the Ḏj̲ānn were created from the fire of Samūm. Sūra 52, 27 the punishment of the Samūm is mentioned; and according to Sūra 50, 41 the “people of the left” were dwelling in Samūm wa-Ḥamīm. Apparently Muḥammad applies the term to infernal heat. The Ḥadīt̲h̲ uses the word in the same sense; yet the meaning “hot wind” is here coming to the front. It is said that Hell takes breath two…

b. al-ʿĀṣ (al-ʿĀṣī) al-Sahmī, a contemporary of Muḥammed of Ḳurais̲h̲ite birth. The part which he played in islāmic history begins with his conversion in the year 8 (629/630). At that time he must already have been of middle age, for at his death which took place circa 42 = 663 he was over ninety years old. He passed for one of the most wily politicians of his time, and we must endorse this verdict. The more clear-sighted inhabitants of Mekka already foresaw shortly after the unsuccessful siege of …

(a.), image, form, shape, e.g. ṣūrat al-ard, “the shape of the earth”, ṣūrat ḥimār, “the form of an ass” (Muslim, Ṣalāt, trad. 115) or face, countenance (see below). Taṣāwīr are rather pictures. Ṣūra and taṣwīra are therefore in the same relation to one another as the Hebrew demūt and ṣelem. The Biblical idea according to which man was created in God’s selem (Gen., i. 27) has most probably passed into Ḥadīt̲h̲. It occurs, so far as I am aware, in three passages in classical Ḥadīt̲h̲; the exegesis is uncertain and in general unwilling to adopt interpretati…

, Abū Ḥud̲h̲aifa al-G̲h̲azzāl, the chief of the Muʿtazila [q. v.]. Biographical facts concerning this personality are meagre, especially from early sources, yet without considerable divergencies. Born in Madīna in 80 (699-700), where he was a client of the Banū Ḍabba, or of the Banū Mak̲h̲zūm, he migrated to Baṣra, where he belonged to the circle of Ḥasan al-Baṣrī [cf. al-ḥasan b. abi ’l-ḥasan al-baṣrī], and entered into friendly relations with notable personalities such as Ḏj̲ahm b. Ṣafwān [q. v.] and Bas̲h̲s̲h̲ār b. Burd [q. v.]. With none of these three m…

(Banū), one of the three Jewish tribes of Yat̲h̲rib. The name differs from the usual forms of Arabic proper names but at the same time has nothing Hebrew about its type. Nothing certain is known regarding their immigration into Yat̲h̲rib. They possessed no land there but lived by trading. That their personal names known to us are for the most part Arabic says as little regarding their origin as the occurrence of Biblical names among them. But there seem to be no valid reasons for doubting their Jewish origin. In Yat̲h̲rib they lived in the south-west part of the town, near the Muṣallā and close …

Sulaimān b. Dāwūd b. al-Ḏj̲ārūd Abū Dāwūd, a collector of traditions and author of a Musnad. The nisba is derived from al-ṭayālisa, the plural of ṭailasān, a piece of clothing that covers the head-dress and sometimes also the shoulders (see Dozy, Dictionnaire détaillé des noms des vêtements chez les arabes, p. 278 sqq.). Al-Ṭayālisī was born at Baṣra in 133 (750-751) and died in 203 (818—819). It is also said that he reached the age of 72 years. He has handed down traditions on the authority of S̲h̲uʿba, Sufyān al-T̲h̲awrī and other well known tra…

(a.), a term denoting the toothbrush as well as the tooth-pick. The more usual term is siwāk (plural suwuk) which means also the act of cleansing the teeth. Neither of the two terms occurs in the Ḳurʾān. In Ḥadīt̲h̲ miswāk is not used, siwāk, on the other hand, frequently. In order to understand its use, it is necessary to know that the instrument consists of a piece of smooth wood, the end of which is incised so as to make it similar to a brush to some extent. The piece of wood used as a tooth-pick must have been smaller and thinner, ¶ as appears e.g. from the tradition in which it is related t…

, a. a.proper name denoting the eponym of Egypt, the ancestor of the Berbers and the Copts. In accordance with the Biblical genealogy (Genesis x. 1 sqq.) Miṣr is called the son of Ḥām, the son of Nūḥ. The Biblical origin of the pedigree appears clearly in the form Miṣrāʾim or Miṣrām (cf. Hebrew Miṣraim) which is found side by side with Miṣr. In some genealogies between Ḥām and Miṣr there is inserted Baisar, a name of which the origin is unknown to me. There exists, however, also quite a different genealogy, according to which Miṣrām is a son of Tablīl, one of the early heroes ( d̲j̲abābira), who rule…

(a.) felicity, good fortune. The root s-ʿ-d and some of its derivatives is associated in various connections with pre-Islāmic Arab conceptions. Its general meaning is given as “auspicious, fortunate ( y-m-n, opposite n-ḥ-s). The proper name Saʿd (feminine Su’ād, see the article saʿd) may therefore be synonymous with Hebrew names like Benjamin and Gad. Saʿd is also found as the name of a god; Wellhausen ( Reste arabischen Heidentums 2, p. 65) suggests that al-Saʿīda (a house round which the Arabs used to run) was originally an epithet of al-ʿUzzā. Saʿd followed by…

, covering, protection, shelter, especially at the ṣalāt, where sutra means the object, which the worshipper places in front of him or lays in the direction of the ḳibla whereby he shuts himself off in an imaginary area within which he is not disturbed by human or demoniacal influences. “The fictitious fencing off of an open place of prayer, the sutra, seems to have had among other objects that of warding off demons” (Wellhausen, Reste 2, p. 158). In one tradition the man who deliberately penetrates into this imaginary area is actually called a s̲h̲aiṭān (Buk̲h̲ārī, Ṣalāt, bāb too; cf. Aḥm…

(a.), infinitive V from the root h-d̲j̲-d which is one of the roots with opposed meanings ( aḍdād), as it signifies “sleep” and also “to be awake”, “to keep a vigil”, “to perform the night ṣalāt or the nightly recitation of the Ḳurʾān”. The latter two meanings have become the usual ones in Islām. The word occurs only once in the Ḳurʾān, Sūra xvii. 81: “And in a part of the night, perform a ṣalāt as a voluntary effort” etc., but the thing itself is often referred to. We are told of the pious (li. 17) that they sl…

(also briefly called al-Baḳīʿ), the cemetery of Medīna. The name denotes a field, which was originally covered with a kind of high growing black berry; there were several such Baḳīʿ’s in Medīna. The place was and is situated at the south-east end of the town, outside the modern town-wall through which a gateway, Bāb al-Baḳīʿ, gives admittance to the cemetery (see the map of Medīna in Caetani, Annali, ii. 1, p. 73). The first to be buried in al-Baḳī was ʿOt̲h̲mān b. Maẓʿūn, the ascetic companion of the Prophet; the latter’s daughters, the little Ibrāhīm, and his…

(a.), visit, in the religious sense the visit to a holy place or to the tomb of a saint, especially to Muḥammad’s tomb in the mosque of al-Madīna, which even under the Wahhābī rule is paid by those who perform the ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ [q. v.]. The ziyāra paid to the tombs of the saints was among the bidaʾwhich were combated by Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Wahhāb [cf. wahhābīya]. For details cf. W. R. van Diflelen, De leer der Wahhabieten, doctoral dissertation, Leyden 1927. That the Wahhābīs were not the first in Islām to question the legality of visiting tombs, and of the practices conne…

, Abū ʿĪsā Muḥammad b. ʿĪsā b. Sawra b. S̲h̲ahdād, the author ofone of the canonical or semi-canonical collections of traditions. The nisba al-Tirmid̲h̲ī connects him with Tirmid̲h̲, a place on the upper Āmū Daryā, at a distance of 6 leagues from Balk̲h̲ (about 37° Lat. N. and 67° Long. E. from Greenwich; cf. Ḳazwīnī, Nuzhat al-Ḳulūb, ed. and transl. Le Strange, G. M. S., xxiii., index, s. v.; Le Strange, The Lands of the Eastern Caliphate, p. 440 sq. and map ix., facing p. 433), where he is said to have died in 279 (892—893); according to other reports, he died at Būg̲h̲,…

b. Hind, son of the Lak̲h̲mid prince al-Mund̲h̲ir and of Hind, a woman of the tribe of Kinda. After his father’s death he became “king” at al-Ḥira (554—570 A. D.). He was a warlike ruler and, like his house, very cruel. It is well-known how he sent the poets al-Mutalammis and Ṭarafa to his governor in Baḥrain, with letters ordering their death. By reason of his harsh character, he bore the surname of Muḍarriṭ al-Ḥid̲j̲āra (“he who makes stones crack”). He was also called Muḥarriḳ (“burning”). As …

(a., plur. rawātib), a word meaning what is fixed and hence applied to certain nonobligatory ṣalāts or certain litanies. The term is not found in the Ḳurʾān nor as a technical term in Ḥadīt̲h̲. On the first meaning see the article nāfila, p. 826a. As to the second, it is applied to the d̲h̲ikr which one recites alone, as well as to those which are recited in groups. We owe to M. Snouck Hurgronje a detailed description of the rawātib practised in Atchin. (A. J. Wensinck) Bibliography C. Snouck Hurgronje, De Atjèhers, Batavia—Leyden 1893—1894, ii. 220 sqq. English transl, by O’Sullivan, The Acheh…

, the name of an individual ortribe which occupies the same position in Muslim genealogy as Aram in Biblical, as may be seen from a comparison of the Muslim series ʿŪṣ b. Iram b. Sām b. Nūḥ with the Biblical ʿŪṣ b. Aram b. Shem b. Noah. The Muslim line probably, like many others, entered historiography under Jewish influence and therefore gives us no new information regarding the dissemination of Aramaeans in Arabia. The name is identified with that of the Iram Ḏh̲āt al-ʿImād discussed below, th…

has exercised a considerable influence on the dogmatics of Islām; his tradition has been kept up especially in the school of al-Māturīdī [q. v.] and its adepts in Samarḳand. The only authentic document by Abū Ḥanīfa which has come down to us is his letter to ʿUt̲h̲mān al-Battī (unedited), in which he defends his Murd̲j̲itic [cf. al-murd̲j̲iʾa] views in an urbane way. The Fiḳh Akbar (II) which is ascribed to him in the Fihrist and by later tradition, is an ʿaḳīda representing an early stage of scholastic theology, possibly composed in the first half of the tenth century a. d. This work must be…

(the forms with the article are also found), the names of the two angels who examine and if necessary punish the dead in their tombs. To the ¶ examination in the tomb the infidels and the faithful — the righteous as well as the sinners — are liabie. They are set upright in their tombs and must state their opinion regarding Muḥammad. The righteous faithful will answer, that he is the Apostle of Allāh; thereupon they will be left alone till the Day of Resurrection. The sinners and the infidels, on the other hand, will have …

b. Barak̲h̲yā (Hebrew Asaf b. Berekyah), name of the alleged Wazīr of King Solomon. According to the legend he was Solomon’s confidant, and always had access to him. When the royal consort Ḏj̲arāda was worshipping idols Āṣaf delivered a public address in which he praised the apostles of God, Solomon among them but only for the excellent qualities he had manifested in his youth. Solomon in anger thereat took him to task, bnt was reproved for the introduction of idol-worship at the court. This was then done away with and the consort punished; the king became repentant. (A. J. Wensinck) Bibliogra…

b. zaid b. ʿamr b. nufail ….. b. kaʿb b. luʾaiy, one of Muḥammad’s earliest companions. His mother was Fāṭima bint Baʿd̲j̲a b. Umaiya of the clan of Ḵh̲uzāʿa. His kunya is Abu ’l-Aʿwar or Abū T̲h̲awr. He was one of ʿUmar b. al-Ḵh̲aṭṭāb’s cousins and at the same time his brother-in-law through his wife, who was ʿUmar’s sister, as well as through ʿUmar’s wife who was his sister. He assumed Islām before Muḥammad entered the house of Zaid b. al-Aiḳam and ʿUmar’s conversion is said to have taken place under the influence of Saʿīd and his family. His father, Zaid b. ʿAmr, was one of the ḥanīf’s; he was muc…

, the prophet who, according to the Ḳurʾān, appeared among the ʿĀd [q. v.]. He is represented as one of their kinsmen ( ak̲h̲) and his genealogy (which is transmitted in various forms), therefore coincides in part with that of their founder ʿĀd. He is also identified with ʿĀbir (the Biblical ʿEber, the ancestor of the Hebrews); in another reference he is called the son of ʿĀbir [q. v.]. His figure is even more shadowy than the picture of his people and like every warner he is represented in the same position as Muḥamm…

(a.), intention. The acts of ceremonial law, obligatory or not, require to be preceded by a declaration by the performer, that he intends to perform such an act. This declaration, pronounced audibly or mentally, is called nīya. Without it, the act would be bāṭil [q. v.]. The nīya is required before the performance of the ʿibādāt, such as washing, bathing, prayer, alms, fasting, retreat, pilgrimage, sacrifice. “Ceremonial acts without nīya are not valid”, says G̲h̲azālī ( Iḥyāʾ, Cairo 1282, iv. 316). Yet a survey of the opinions of the lawyers regarding the nīya in conne…

or al-Masīḥ al-Dad̲j̲d̲j̲āl (rarely al-Kad̲h̲d̲h̲āb: Buk̲h̲ārī, Fitan, bāb 26 and al-Masīḥ al-ḍalāl: Ṭayālisī, N°. 2532), the Muslim Antichrist. The word is not found in the Ḳurʾān; it is probably an Aramaic loan-word. In Syriac it is found as an epithet of the Antichrist, e. g. in Matthew xxiv. 24 where the Pes̲h̲itta translates ψευδόχριστον by mes̲h̲īḥē daggālē. We also find in Syriac nebīyā daggālā “pseudo-prophet”, s̲h̲āhedā daggālā “false witness” etc. On the other hand, the existence in Arabic of the verb dad̲j̲ala with the meaning “to deceive”, given in the lexicons w…

, Bilpai or Pilpai is the form usual ¶ in the west, of the name of the author of the Kalīla wa-Dimna; this form may be traced to the Arabic Bīdbā or Bīdbāh. The Syriac version of the book (compiled from the Pahlavi) has the name Bidug or Bidwag. This form is said by Benfey to be derived from the Sanskrit vidyāpati which means “lord of knowledge”. All that we know of this (legendary) personage is given in the preface by Bahnūd b. Sahwān, alias ʿAlī b. al-S̲h̲āh al-Fārisī, to the Arabic version of the Kalīla wa-Dimna. This can only be briefly given here and the reader may be referred for oth…

the name of the fourth letter of the Arabic alphabet with the numerical value 500. Its form is a horizontal stroke, curved upwards at its ends, with three dots above it. By these three dots it is distinguished from the third letter of the alphabet, tāʾ [q. v.], which has two dots only. This similarity explains also the place of t̲h̲āʾ immediately after tāʾ. Of the other Semitic alphabets it is only the South-Arabic which has a special form for the sound t̲h̲. Etymologically t̲h̲āʾ corresponds to Canaanitic , Aramaic (early-Aramaic ), Assyrian s̲h̲, Aethiopic . In Arabian its place is some…

, (plur. ḥirāb) spear. According to the Arab lexicographers, the ḥarba is smaller than the rumḥ and larger than the ʿanaza [q. v.]. It has the same function as the latter in Muslim ceremonial; we therefore find in some traditions that in Muḥammad’s time an ʿanaza, in others a ḥarba was used as sutra [q. v.] (cf. the chapter sutrat al-muṣallī in the different collections of tradition). It has been supposed that the erection of a sutra at the salāṭ had originally a protective object; in agreement with this is the fact that, according to some traditions, when the Prophet went…

, the Biblical prophet Elias, is twice mentioned in the Ḳurʾān. In; Sūra vi. 83 he is mentioned with Zakarīyāʾ, Yaḥyā, and ʿĪsā as one of the ṣāliḥūn without further details. In Sūra xxxvii. 123—130 his history is related in the fashion which is stereotyped for all stories of prophets in the Ḳurʾān. That Muḥammad however knew something more of him is clear from the mention of the Baʿl, which is differently interpreted by the commentators, sometimes as lord, sometimes as an idol who has given his name to the town of Baalbe…

(a.), board, tablet; the first meaning is found in the Ḳurʾān, Sūra, liv. 13, where Noah’s ark is called d̲h̲āt alwāḥ. The second meaning is that of lawh as writing material, e.g. the tablets of the lawḥ (Sura, vii. 142, 149, 153, where the plural alwāḥ is used; see Lisān, iii. 421). Al-dawāt wa ’l-lawḥ (Buk̲h̲ārī, Tafsīr al-Ḳurʾān, Sūra, iv., bāb 18) corresponds to our “paper and ink”. The expression mā baina ’l-lawḥain “what lies between the two boards” is found in Ḥadīt̲h̲, to describe the whole Ḳurʾān (Buk̲h̲ārī, Tafsīr, Sūra lix., bāb 4; Libās, bāb 84); cf. mā baina ’l-daffatain (Buk̲h̲ār…

(a.), servant; in Turkish often used with the secondary meaning of “eunuch”. The word is applied to male and female, freemen or slaves alike; as to the latter see the art. ʿabd. The collective is k̲h̲adam and the plural k̲h̲uddām. Ḵh̲ādim al-Ḥaramain al-s̲h̲arīfain (servant of the two sacred areas i. e. Mekka and Medīna) was one of the titles of the Sulṭān of Turkey (see Barthold, Isl. vi. 1916, p. 379, sqq.). There have always been free servants alongside of slaves in Islām. Anas b. Mālik [q. v.] entered Muḥammad’s service as a youth (al-Buk̲h̲ārī, Ḏj̲ihād, bāb 74 etc.) and he records it…

, “the people of the ditch”, mentioned in Sura, 85, 4 et seq. The Muslim historians relate as follows in regard to this passage: King Ḏh̲ū Nuwās of Yemen was a devotee of Judaism and intolerant of the Christians. He bade them choose between Judaism and death. The Christians preferred martyrdom. Thereupon the king caused a long ditch to be constructed in which they were burned alive. This story is partly confirmed by Christian sources and enlarged upon. When the Kūs̲h̲ites were unable, since winter had set in, to send a viceroy to Yemen, Ḏh̲ū Nuwās (he is variou…

b. Mālik Abu Ḥamza, one of the most prolific traditionists. After the Hid̲j̲ra his mother gave him to the prophet as servant; according to his own statement he was then ten years of age. He was present at Badr, but took no part in the battle, and is therefore not counted among the combatants. He remained in Muḥammad’s service up to the time of the prophets death, later he took part in the wars of conquest. He also played small parts in the civil wars. In the year 65 (684) he officiated as imām of t…

, 24th letter of the Arabic alphabet, with the numerical value of forty. On different forms of the letter cf. arabia, plate 1. In some dialects of Southern Arabia and of tribes coming from that region, mīm was and is used as the article of determination, side by side with l. A well known tradition is put into the mouth of a man from Southern Arabia in the following form: Laisa min am-birri am-ṣiyāmu fi ’m-safar. Cf. Ibn Yaʿīs̲h̲, ed. Jahn, ii. 1331; Landberg, Etudes sur les dialectes de l’Arabie méridionale, 11/ii. 281—290. (A. J. Wensinck)

(a.), revelation [cf. also ḳorʾān, muḥammad]. As to the etymology of the word, cf. Jewish-Aramaic “to hasten”, Aethiopic “to go round, to recognise”, and the nonreligious meaning ilhām bi-surʿa, given by the Dictionary of Technical Terms; on the use of the verb by the poets, cf. Lisān, s. v. As a religious technical term it is distinguished from inspiration ( ilhām, q. v.) of saints, artists and others, from tanzīl, which chiefly denotes the object of revelation and from inzāl which denotes the sending down of revelation from heaven and from its heavenly archetype [see umm al-kitāb], in so…

, Mary. The Arabic form of the name is identical with and μαριάμ which are used in the Syriac and in the Greek Biblei in the New as well as in the Old Testament. In the latter it corresponds to the Hebrew . This name, like other ones with the same suffix, such as ʿAmram, Bilʿam, points to the region between Palestine and Northwestern Arabia as its home. According to Muslim interpretation the name means “the pious” ( al-ʿābida; cf. the commentaries on sūra iii. 31). It occurs frequently in the Ḳurʾān in the combination [ʿĪsā] Ibn Maryam “[Jesus] the son of Mary” (sūra ii. 81, 254; iii. 31 sqq.; iv. 156,…

, the nameofthe Mosque of Mecca. The name is already found in the pre-Muḥammadan period (Horovitz, Koranische Studien, p. 140 sq.) in Ḳais b. al-Ḵh̲atīm, ed. Kowalski, v. 14: “By Allāh, the Lord of the Holy Masd̲j̲id and of that which is covered with Yemen stuffs, which are embroidered with hempen thread” (?). It would be very improbable if a Medīna poet by these two references meant anything other than the Meccan sanctuary. The expression is also fairly frequent in the Ḳurʾān after the second Meccan period (Horovitz, op. cit.) and in various connections: it is a grave sin on the pa…

, apostle. The word is borrowed from the Ethiopie, where ḥawāryā has the same meaning (see Nöldeke, Beiträge zur sem. Sprachwiss., p. 48). The derivations from the Arabic “he who wears white clothes” etc. are erroneous. Tradition delights to give foreign epithets which were current among the “people of the scripture”, to the earliest missionaries of Islām. Abū Bakr is called al-Ṣiddīḳ, ʿUmar al-Fārūḳ, al-Zubair Ibn al-ʿAwwām al-Ḥawārī. At the same time we find the collective name al-Ḥawārīyūn for twelve individuals, who are said to have been appointed naḳībs of the Medīnese at the …

, the number seven, which has a special significance for Muslims as for other — Semitic and non-Semitic — peoples. The preference for this number in various conceptions and actions goes back in part to borrowing from Jews, Christians and other peoples but in part was already indigenous among the pre-Muḥammadan Arabs. The latter is doubtless true of the sevenfold ṭawāf around the Kaʿba, the sevenfold course between al-Ṣafā and al-Marwa (cf. saʿy) and the sevenfold casting of stones at the Ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲ (see d̲j̲amra i. 1012 sq.). Another series of these beliefs is connected with pecu…

(a.), Discrimination, revelation, salvation. The word is found in Arabic literature as an original Arabic word and also as one borrowed from the Aramaic. The meaning of the word in various passages in the Ḳorʾān cannot always be exactly determined; Muḥammad made a wide use of it; he was fond of words with a long vowel in the last syllable on account of their solemn sound. 1. The Arabic word means separation, distinction, proof. Probably,however, this meaning is not found in the Ḳorʾān, although the commentators constantly expound it as having the theological s…

, name of a voluntary fast-day which is observed on the 10. Muḥarram. When Muḥammad came to Medīna he adopted from the jews amongst other days the ʿĀs̲h̲ūrāʾ. The name is obviously the Hebraic with the Aramaic determinative ending; in Lev. 16, 29 it is used of the great Day of Atonement. Muḥammad retained the Jewish custom in the rite, that is, the fast was observed on this day from sunset to sunset, and not as was usually the case only during the day. When in the year 2 Muḥammad’s relations with the Jews became strained Ramaḍâ…

Abu ’l-Ḥasan ʿAlī.To the number of his printed works must be added Maḳālāt al-Islāmīyīn, ed. H. Ritter (i., Constantinople 1928; i.—ii., ibid. 1929—1930, in Btbliotheca Islamica, I a., b.). This work consists of three parts: a. (i. 1—289) a survey of the Muslim sects and dissensions (S̲h̲īʿa, Ḵh̲awārid̲j̲, Murd̲j̲iʾa, Muʿtazila, Mud̲j̲assima, Ḏj̲ahmīya, Ḍirārīya, Nad̲j̲d̲j̲ārīya, Bakrīya, Nussāk); b. (i. 290—300) the creed of the orthodox community ( aṣḥāb al-ḥadīt̲h̲ wa-ahl al-sunna) and the slight deviations of al-Ḳaṭṭān, Zuhair al-At̲h̲arī, Abū Muʿād̲h̲ al-Tawmanī; c. (ii…

(a.), part. IV of s-l-m, denotes the adherent of Islām [q. v.]. The term has become current in some European languages (also in the forms moslim, moslem), as a noun or as an ¶ adjective or as both, side by side with Muhammadan (in different forms). It has replaced Musulman (in different forms), except in French, where the latter term is used as a noun and as an adjective. The origin of musulman is probably muslin with the ending ān of the adjective in Persian. In some countries, e. g. Germany and the Netherlands, popular etymology has taken man for the vernacular “Mann, man”, whence the plural forms M…

, “the people of the ditch” or “of the well”, are twice mentioned in the Ḳorʾān (Sūra 25, 40; 50, 12), along with ʿĀd, T̲h̲amūd and other unbelievers. The commentators know nothing for certain about them, and so give widely divergent explanations and all manner of fantastic accounts. Some take al-Rass to be a geographical name (cf. Yāḳūt, sub voce); some hold that these people, a remnant of T̲h̲amūd, cast ( rassa) their prophet Ḥanẓala in to a well ( rass) and were consequently exterminated. It is also related that the mountain of the bird ʿAnḳāʾ [q. v.] was situated in the…

(Ḵh̲id̲h̲lān, a.), nomen actionis from the root k̲h̲-d̲h̲-l “to leave in the lurch”, a technical term in Muḥammadan theology, applied exclusively to Allāh when He withdraws His grace or help from man. The disputes regarding it first appear in connection with the quarrel over ḳadar [q. v.]. A starting point is found in Sūra iii. 154: “but if He abandon you to yourselves ( yak̲h̲d̲h̲ulkum), who will help you after Him? Let the faithful therefore trust in God”. On this al-Rāzī observes: “The Companions deduce from this verse that belief is exclusively a result …

(a.), impure, opp. ṭāhir, cf. ṭahāra. According to the S̲h̲āfiʿī doctrine, as systematised by al-Nawawī ( Minhād̲j̲, i. 36 sqq.; cf. G̲h̲azālī, al-Wad̲j̲īz, i. 6 sq.), the following are the things impure in themselves ( nad̲j̲āsāt): wine and other spirituous drinks, dogs, swine, maita, blood and excrements; milk of animals whose flesh is not eaten. Regarding these groups the following may be remarked. On wine and other spirituous drinks cf. the artt. k̲h̲amr and nabīd̲h̲. — Dogs are not declared impure in the Ḳurʾān; on the contrary, in the description of the sleepers…

(a.), monasticism. The term is derived from rāhib [q. v.]; it occurs in the Ḳurʿān once only, in a passage (sūra lvii. 27) that has given rise to divergent interpretations: “And we put in the hearts of those who followed Jesus, compassion and mercy, and the monastic state, they instituted the same (we did not prescribe it to them) only out of a desire to please God. Yet they observed not the same as it ought truly to have been observed. And we gave unto such of them as believed, their reward; but many of them were wicked doers”. According to some of the exegists the verb “we put” has two obje…

(a.), infinitive ivth from the root ḥ-r-m, which has the meaning of “warding off” ( manʿ), as the Lisān, xv. 9 says: “to declare a thing ḥaram” or “to make ḥaram”. (The opposite is iḥlāl “to declare permitted”). The word iḥrām has however become a technical term for “sacred state”; one who is in this state is called muḥrim. For example, a person fasting may be called muḥrim. The word iḥrām, however, is only used for two states: the sacred state in which one performs ¶ the ʿumra and ḥad̲j̲d̲j̲, and the state of consecration during the ṣalāt. Thirdly the word can be used of the dress in which the ḥad̲j̲d̲…

, a religious technical term, with various meanings, regarding the fundamental signification of which there is no unanimity among the lexicographers. “Refraining from speaking”, “the prayer during the ṣalāt”, “humility and recognition that one’s relation to Allāh is that of a creature to his creator”, “standing” — these are the usual dictionary definitions which are also found in the commentaries on different verses of the Ḳurʾān where ḳunūt or derivatives from the root ḳ-n-t occur. There is hardly one of these for which the context provides a rigid definition of the…

, two angels who are mentioned in the Ḳorʾān (Sūra, 2, 9 6) in the words “and it was not Sulaimān that was an unbeliever but the devils, who taught men sorcery and that which had been revealed to the two angels in Bābil, Hārūt and Mārūt; but they taught no one without saying “we are but a temptation, therefore be not unbelieving”. People learn from them means by which they may separate man and wife” etc. A number of stories are attached to this passage, the main outlines being as follows. When the angels in heaven saw the sinful children of men, they spoke contemptuously of them before ¶ Allāh. But He …