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b. Yūsuf b. Maṭar al-Ḥāsib , a translator who lived in Bag̲h̲dād in the late 2nd/8th and early 3rd/9th centuries. His translations include the Elements of Euclid (revised by T̲h̲ābit b. Ḳurra and commented by al-Nayrīzī [ qq.v.]) and a version, from a Syriac text, of the Astronomy of Ptolemy. The latter, called K. al-Mad̲j̲istī , was completed in 212/827-8. (Ed.) Bibliography Brockelmann, I 203, SI 363 A. Mieli, La science arabe, Leiden 1938, 85.

, one of the best known of the bandit-lords who, from the marshes of the Baṭāʾiḥ [ q.v.] where they were entrenched, periodically defied and even threatened the authorities of Bag̲h̲dād itself. A native of al-D̲j̲āmida, a place between Wāsiṭ and Baṣra, ʿImrān was obliged to go into hiding following a crime which he had committed, and from then on led the life of a brigand, for which the region where he dwelt was very suitable. He next entered into relations with Abu ’l-Ḳāsim al-Barīdī [see al-barīdī ], who saw in him the man he needed to defend the marshes ag…

(Eng. and Fr.: Navarre), a province of northern Spain, whose capital, Pampeluna, abandoned its allegiance to the Muslims in 182/798 and made itself into a semi-independent kingdom. Its history, at the time of Muslim domination, becomes intermingled with that of Pampeluna [see banbalūna ] and with that of the majority of its inhabitants, the Basques or Vascons [see bas̲h̲kunis̲h̲ ]. (Ed.)

, Ottoman name of the island of Imbros in the Aegean Sea, some 15 km off the southern end of the Gallipoli peninsula (Thracian Chersonese), and thus of strategic importance as commanding the entrance to the Dardanelles, Čanaḳ-ḳalʿe Bog̲h̲azi̊ [ q.v.]. In 1444, when it was visited by Cyriacus of Ancona, it was still Byzantine (although the neighbouring islands of Thasos and Samothrace were in the hands of the Gattilusio family). When news of the fall of Constantinople (857/1453) reached the island, many of its leading men fled, but the…

a locality situated on the left bank of the Tigris, not far south of East Bag̲h̲dād, capital of a district ( ṭassūd̲j̲ ) of the same name. Here the Nahr Bīn flowed into the Tigris; a branch of the Nahrawān, it provided East Bag̲h̲dād with a network of canals. Kalwād̲h̲ā was a large town endowed with a Great Mosque frequented by the people of Bag̲h̲dād since it was only a short distance to travel (Ibn Rusta-Wiet, 214, estimates it at three parasangs, but Yāḳūt , s.v., reduces it to one parasang, specifying that in his day the place was in ruins). The town i…

, commander ( ḥād̲j̲ib ) high in the service of the local ruler of the Baṭāʾiḥ [ q.v.] or marsh lands of lower ʿIrāḳ, ʿImrān b. S̲h̲āhīn [ q.v.], and then petty ruler there during the second half of the 4th/10th century. After ʿImrān’s death in 369/979, al-Muẓaffar set aside his sons and set up a grandson, a minor called Abu ’l-Maʿālī (373/983-4). He himself in practice exercised all power, although he set up further puppet rulers of the line of ʿImrān until his own death in 376/986-7, after which al-Muẓaffar was succeeded…

(karah) or karad̲j̲ abī dulaf , an ancient town in the D̲j̲ibāl province [ q.v.] of Persia; the actual site is unknown, but it was situated to the south-east of Hamad̲h̲ān, almost half-way between that city and Iṣfahān. It derives its second name from al-Ḳāsim b. ʿĪsā al-ʿId̲j̲lī [ q.v.], better known by his kunya of Abū Dulaf, who probably enlarged ( maṣṣara ) an existing settlement and constructed a fortress there; during the wars between al-Amīn and al-Maʾmūn, this commander carved out for himself a fief in D̲j̲ibāl and secured the privilege of paying in return a tax for this concession ( īg̲h…

(a.), a word found in Ḳurʾān, XCVI, 18, usually interpreted by the commentators as the guardians of Hell or else the angels who carry off the souls at death [see malāʾika. 1]. A. Jeffery, The foreign vocabulary of the Qurʾān , Baroda 1938, 148, thought that an origin from Syriac zabūrā , the ductores who, says Ephraim Syrus, lead the departed souls for judgment was likely; but W. Eilers, Iranisches Lehngut im arabischen , in Indo-Iranian Jnal , v (1962), 220, favoured an Iranian etymology, from MP zen ( dān ) bān “warder, keeper of a prison”, NP zindānbān . (Ed.) Bibliography Given in the article.

, Turkish political party, registered on 7 January 1946. In the general elections held in July of the same year, the party put up 273 candidates for 465 seats; sixty one of them were elected, forming the main opposition group. The first party congress, held on 7 January 1947, formally adopted the party programme and charter. As a result of various internal disagreements, notably the secession of a group of deputies who formed the National Party ( Millet Partisi ) in July 1948, the strength of the Democrat Party in the Assembly had fallen by 1950 to 31…

(t.), literally “centre”, in Ottoman Turkish military terminology, the equivalent of a company of fighting men in the three divisions (the Segmen , the D̲j̲emāʿat and the Bölük ) of which the Janissary corps was eventually composed [see od̲j̲aḳ and yeñi čeriler ). The number of ortas within the corps varied through the ages, but eventually approached 200; d’Ohsson reckoned the total at 229. The strength of each orta likewise varied; in the time of Meḥemmed II Fātiḥ [ q.v.], they are said to have been composed of 50 men, but in the low hundreds at subsequent periods. The commander of an orta …

(a.), one of the various words used in the Ḳurʾān for Hell Fire. Saʿīr seems to be a native Arabic formation (unlike D̲j̲ahannam and possibly Ṣaḳar [ q.v.]) with the meaning “[place of] fiercely kindled flame”. It occurs 16 times in the Holy Book (IV, 11/10, 58/55, XXII, 4, etc.), most frequently in third Meccan period and Medinan sūras. (Ed.) Bibliography Nöldeke-Schwally, G des Q i, 89 T. O’Shaughnessy, The seven names for Hell in the Qurʾān, in BSOAS, xxiv (1961), 455-7.

(a.), literally, “one who metes out justice, inṣāf [ q.v.]”, a term used in Muslim Indian administration, and then in that of British India, to denote a legal official or judge of subordinate grade. In Mug̲h̲al times, a chief munṣif ( munṣif-i munṣifān ) tried civil cases, especially those involving revenue questions, within a sarkār see R.C. Majumdar (ed.), The history and culture of the Indian people, vii. The Mughul empire, 1974, 79, 84, 86). In British India, from 1793 onwards, it was the title of a native civil judge of the lowest grade (see Yule and Burnell, Hobson-Jobson, a glossary of…

, Abū Muḥammad or Abū Naṣr ʿAbd al-Ḳādir b. al-ʿArabī al-Munabbahī al-Madag̲h̲rī , Moroccan physician and poet who was contemporary with sultan Mawlāy Ismāʿīl (1082-1139/1673-1727) and who died after 1140/1727-8. He received a traditional education at Fās, studied medicine under Ādarrāḳ [ q.v. above] Aḥmad b. Muḥammad, performed the pilgrimage and profited by the opportunity to follow courses in medicine at Alexandria and Cairo. He then returned to settle at Meknès, where he entered the sultan’s service, but led a fairly austere and cloistered life. As well as a commentary on a …

, the name of a river and its valley in the northeastern part of Afg̲h̲ānistān. The river flows southwards from the Hindū Kus̲h̲ [ q.v.] and joins the Kābul River at Sarobi, and near this point a barrage was constructed in the 1950s to supply water for Kābul. The Pand̲j̲hīr valley has always been important as a corridor for nomads who winter in the Lāmg̲h̲ānāt-D̲j̲alālābād [ q.vv.] regions and then travel to summer pastures in Badak̲h̲s̲h̲ān [ q.v.]. In mediaeval Islamic times, Pand̲j̲hīr was a famed centre for silver mining [see maʿdin at V, 964, 967, 968 for details], and coins were…

(a.), the verbal noun of Form X of the verb laḥiḳa “to reach, catch up with,” having the meaning of “to try to reach, attach, adopt, affiliate s.o. to s.th.” (see WbKAS , letter lām, 330). In early Islamic history, it was especially used for the attempt in 44/665 of the Umayyad caliph Muʿāwiya I [ q.v.] to attach the very able official Ziyād b. Abīhi [ q.v.] to his own, ruling clan of Umayya. Ziyād was of dubious parentage, his mother Sumayya being apparently a slave, and Muʿāwiya aimed at linking Ziyād to his own family as the putative son of his own father, Abū Sufyān [ q.v.]. For details of this istilḥā…

, S̲h̲araf al-Dīn Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad b. Saʿīd b. ḥammād al-ṣanhād̲j̲ī , an ¶ Egyptian poet of Berber origin, born on 1 S̲h̲awwāl 608/7 March 1212 at Būṣīr [ q.v.] or near to Dalāṣ (see Yāḳūt, s.v.) in Upper Egypt. He was in fact known also by the nisba of Dalāṣī, it being said that one of his parents originated from Dalāṣ and the other from Būṣīr; he also had a composite nisba, al-Dalāṣīrī, but this last was never very current. He followed the courses of the Ṣūfī Abu ’l-ʿAbbās Aḥmad al-Mursī (d. 686/1287; see al-S̲h̲aʿrānī, al-Ṭabaḳāt al-kubrā , Cairo n.d., ii, 12-18; P. Nwyia, Ibn ʿAṭāʾ Allāh …

(p.), a title used in many different senses in Islamic lands. In earlier times it was variously used of scholars, teachers, merchants, ministers and eunuchs. In mediaeval Egypt, according to Ḳalḳas̲h̲andī, Ṣubḥ , vi, 13, it was a title for important Persian and other foreign merchants (cf. CIA, Égypte , i, no. 24). In Sāmānid times, with the epithet buzurg “great”, it designated the head of the bureaucracy; later it was a title frequently accorded to wazīrs, teachers, writers, rich men, and merchants. In the Ottoman Empire it was used of the ulema , and in the plural form K̲h̲ w ād̲j̲egān [ q.v.]…

(a.), pl. wat̲h̲āʾiḳ , from the verb wat̲h̲uḳa “to be firm, assured”, hence a document that certifies the commission of a promise or legal act, such as a covenant, contract, etc., or the appointment of a person to an office. It thus becomes a general term for an official or legal document or formulary; see for these, diplomatic, i, and on the general usage of the term, Dozy, Supplément, ii, 780. In modern Arabic usage, wat̲h̲āʾiḳ is often used in the sense of “official records, archives”, housed in a dār al-wat̲h̲āʾiḳ . (Ed.) ¶

, a town in the western part of the Rohilk̲h̲and region of modern Uttar Pradesh state in India (lat. 29° 37′ N., long. 78° 19′ E.), the centre of a taḥṣīl of the same name in the Bijnor District. The town was founded by the Afg̲h̲ān commander and wazīr of the Mug̲h̲al Emperors, Nad̲j̲īb al-Dawla [ q.v.], who in 1168/1755 built a fort, Patthagaŕh, one mile to the east. Sacked by the Marāt́hās [ q.v.] in 1186/1772, it passed two years later to the Nawwābs of Awadh [ q.v.] (Oudh). Nad̲j̲īb al-Dawla’s greatgrandson Maḥmūd participated in the Great Rebellion of 1857-8, and his palace wa…

, Abū ʿAlī Aḥmad b. Ismāʿīl b. Ibrāhīm b. al-K̲h̲aṣīb al-Anbārī , kātib and man of letters of the 3rd/9th century, called Naṭṭāḥa and known also, as his grandfather Ibrāhīm had been (Ibn al-Muʿtazz, Ṭabaḳāt , 92), as al-K̲h̲aṣībī, after the ancestor of the family, the governor of Egypt al-K̲h̲aṣīb b. ʿAbd al-Ḥamid, who had been praised by Abū Nuwās (see E. Wagner, Abū Nuwās, Wiesbaden 1965, 70 ff. and index). Often confused with the viziers Aḥmad b. al-K̲h̲aṣīb and his grandson Aḥmad b. ʿUbayd Allāh [see al-k̲h̲aṣībī ], he was in fact only the secretary of ʿUb…

, al-ḥasan b. ʿalī b. warsand founder of a sect among the Berbers of Morocco, whose adherents are called Bad̲j̲aliyya. Al-Bakrī states that he appeared there before Abū ʿAbd Allāh al-S̲h̲īʿī [ q.v.] came to Ifrīḳiya (before 280/893). Al-Bad̲j̲alī came from Nafṭa (Nefta) and found many adherents among the Banū Lamās. ¶ His teaching agreed with that of the Rawāfiḍ, but he asserted Chat the Imāmate belonged only to the descendants of al-Ḥasan. So al-Bakrī and Ibn Ḥazm state, in opposition to Ibn Ḥawḳal (ed. de Goeje, 65), who says that he was a Mūs…

(a.), in French rekkas , a term which has several meanings but which only merits an entry in the EI because, amongst several technical senses, it particularly denotes, in the Muslim West, a messenger who travels on foot long distances in order to carry official or private mail. The name is derived from the noun raḳṣ meaning “trotting” (of a horse or camel; see LA, s.v.), but is also applied to a man who “trots”, as is the case with the raḳḳāṣ . The development of various means of communication has put an end to this calling, now unnecessary, and the word raḳḳāṣ can now only denote an occasional …

(t.) “hot spring”, and a bath served by a hot spring (whereas in principle, in Ottoman usage, a ḥammām [ q.v.] is a bath whose water is artificially heated), a characteristically Western Turkish word, the diminutive(?) of i̊li̊ “hot” ( < i̊li̊g , cited by Maḥmūd Kās̲h̲g̲h̲arī, Ar. text, i, 31 = tr. B. Atalay, i, 31, in contrast to “Turkish” yi̊li̊g , as an example of the Og̲h̲uz tendency to drop initial y-). According to ʿĀṣim (T. translation of al-Fīrūzābād̲j̲’s Muḥīṭ , s.v. al-ḥimma , = ed. of 1268-72, iii, 435; cited in TTS, i, 349), a thermal and curative spring is called “ i̊li̊d̲j̲a …

al-Ḥimmānī al-tamīmī , Abu ’l-Asad, minor poet of the early ʿAbbāsid period whose verses are known only from citations in other works and whose dates of birth and death are unknown. A native of Dīnawar in western Persia, he was in the circle of the caliph al-Mahdī’s vizier al-Fayḍ b. Abī Ṣāliḥ S̲h̲īrawayh, and was a companion of the famous singer ʿAllawayh [ q.v. in Suppl.]. (Ed.) Bibliography D̲j̲ahs̲h̲iyārī, Wuzarāʾ, ed. al-Saḳḳā et alii, Cairo 1401/1980, 164 Ag̲h̲ānī 1, xvi, 62 Ziriklī, Aʿlām, viii, 320.

, ʿabd allāh b. k̲h̲ulayd b. saʿd (d. 240/854), a minor poet who claimed to be a mawlā of the Banū Hās̲h̲im and who was originally from Rayy. He was in K̲h̲urāsān in the service of Ṭāhir b. al-Ḥusayn [ q.v.] as a secretary and as tutor to Ṭāhir’s son ʿAbd Allāh, whose children he further tutored and whose secretary and also librarian he was. In particular, he had the duty of judging the value of the poems addressed to his master, and it was in this capacity that he came to reject a poem by Abū Tammām, who protested violently. He was, …

, a region in western Assam [ q.v.], the most north-easterly limit of penetration by Muslim armies in India. Conquest was not followed by any great settlement of Muslims in the region, which was in fact held only for limited periods. The few Muslims in the district today are mostly traders in the towns. For the history of the district as it affects Islam, see assam. In the Muslim geographers ( Ḥudūd al-ʿālam , Marwazī) it is often referred to as Ḳʾmrwn. (Ed.)

, the name currendy given to ʿīsā b. k̲h̲alīd b. al-walīd , minor poet of Baghdād whose fame stems from his clashes with Diʿbil [ q.v.]. The long dispute between the two poets was clearly a manifestation of the latent conflict between the partisans of Yemen and those of Nizār, and it was probably provoked by the famous ḳaṣīda of Diʿbil in praise of the South Arabs (ʿAbd al-Karīm al-As̲h̲tar, S̲h̲iʿr Diʿbil , Damascus 1964, No. 212), to which Abū Saʿd replied by a poem in -rāʾ which achieved some fame in its time. After this incident, the Banū Mak̲h̲zūm might…

b. Badr al-Dīn ¶ Luʾluʾ , Rukn al-Dīn, ephemeral ruler in Mawṣil [ q.v.] after his father. Luʾluʾ [ q.v.] had submitted to the Mongols, and Ismāʿīl, his eldest son, had journeyed to the Great Ḵh̲ān’s ordo at Ḳaraḳorum in order to give his father’s homage. When Luʾluʾ died in 657/1258, Ismāʿīl succeeded him, but now switched sides and opposed the Mongols. He joined forces with the Mamlūk Baybars [ q.v.], but was killed, together with his young son, when the Mongols captured and sacked Mawṣil, so that the brief line of the Luʾluʾid Atabegs came to an end. (Ed.) Bibliography M. van Berchem, Monuments…

, the former name (in use till 1937) of the Persian town and port on the Ḥaffār channel to the lower Kārūn river [ q.v.], now known as K̲h̲urrams̲h̲ahr. Hence for the history of Muḥammara, see k̲h̲urrams̲h̲ahr , and also k̲h̲azʿal k̲h̲ān . To the references given in the Bibls . to these two articles should be added: H.G. Rawlinson, Notes on Mohamrah and the Cha’ab Arabs , in Procs . Royal Geogr . Soc ., i, 351 ff.; Naval Intelligence Division, Geographical Handbooks, Persia , London 1945, index s.v. Khurramshahr ; M.ʿA. al-Nad̲j̲d̲j̲ār, al-Taʾrīk̲h̲ al-siyāsī li-imārat ʿArabistān al-ʿara…

(a.), the verbal noun of the form II verb waffaḳa “to facilitate, make easy, direct aright”, a term of Islamic theology. Here, tawfīḳ means “facilitating, helpfulness, predisposing towards”, used especially of God’s grace and help towards mankind. In Ḳurʾān, IV, 65/62, it is used by the Hypocrites of their own intentions; in XI, 90/88, by S̲h̲uʿayb [ q.v.] for his hope from God of success in his prophetic mission amongst Midian; in IV, 39/35, of God’s bringing harmony and peace amongst disputants. It is usually regarded by the Islamic theologians as being, with hudā / hidāya …

(a., literally "deviation by excess"), the method of increasing the common denominator of the fractional shares in an inheritance, if their sum would amount to more than one unit. This has, of course, the effect of reducing each individual share. For instance, a man dies leaving a widow, two daughters and both parents. The share of two daughters would be 2/3= 16/24 that of the widow 1/8 = 3/24, that of the father 1/6 = 4/24, and that of the mother 1/6 = 4/24 total 27/24. The denominator is therefore increased to 27, and the two daughters receive 16/27, the widow 3/27 = 1/9 and the ¶ father and the m…

b. Mirdās al-Fihrī , a poet of Mecca. Chief of the clan of Muḥārib b. Fihr in the Fid̲j̲ār [ q.v.], he fought against the Muslims at Uḥud and at the battle of the Trench, and wrote invectives against the Prophet. He was however converted after the capture of Mecca, but it is not known if he perished in the battle of Yamāma (12/633) or whether he survived and went to settle in Syria. (Ed.) Bibliography Sīra, ed. Saḳḳā, etc., Cairo 1375/1955, i, 414-5, 450, ii, 145-6, 254-5 Ṭabarī, index Muḥ. b. Ḥabīb, Muḥabbar, 170, 176, 434 Buḥturī, Ḥamāsa, index Ibn Sallām, Ṭabaḳāt, ed. S̲h̲ākir, 209-12 Ag̲h̲ānī, i…

, the inhaling of water through the nostrils at the time of the wuḍūʾ and g̲h̲usl . This practice is recommended by the various rites (obligatory according to Ibn Ḥanbal). In practice this is not really important since the Believer always performs it during his ablutions. (Ed.) Bibliography See istind̲j̲āʾ.

, a fortress in the Jhelum District of the Pand̲j̲āb province of Pākistān (lat. 32° 55′ N., long. 73° 48′ E.), 16 km/10 miles to the northwest of Jhelum town. It was built by S̲h̲īr S̲h̲āh Sūr [ q.v.] in 949/1542 after his victory over the Mug̲h̲al Humāyūn [ q.v.] and named after S̲h̲ēr S̲h̲āh’s other fortress in Bihār, Rōhtāsgaŕh [ q.v.]. (ed.) Bibliography Imperial gazetteer of India 2, xxi, 332.

(a.), noun derived from ʿAntar [ q.v.], denoting in Egypt: 1) a story-teller who narrates the Sīrat ʿAntar ; 2) a short garment worn under the ḳafṭān . The latter usage, assimilated by popular etymology to ʿAntarī, derives from the Turkish Entari, a word of Greek origin. (Ed.) Bibliography Dozy, Suppl. ii, 180 and references quoted.

, “the informer”, “the spy”, a name which seems to have been given by Tamīm al-Dārī [ q.v.] to the fabulous female animal which he claimed to have encountered on an island upon which he had been cast by a storm, at the same time as the Dad̲j̲d̲j̲āl [ q.v.] who was chained there; the latter being unable to move about, the D̲j̲assāsa, which is a monster of gigantic size, brings him whatever news it has gathered. Assimilated by later exegesis with the Beast ( dābba [ q.v.]) mentioned in the Ḳurʾān (XXVII, 84/82), it adds considerably to the fantastic element in travellers’ and geogra…

(a.), lit. “sorting out, distinguishing, classifying s.th.”, whence “putting in order, composing a book, etc.”, and then as a common noun “orderly presentation or classification”. See ins̲h̲āʾ ; kitāb , and the Bibl . to this last article, to which should be added G. Bosch, J. Carswell and G. Petherbridge, Islamic bindings and bookmaking. Catalogue of an exhibition, The Oriental Institute, Chicago 1981; J. Pedersen, The Arabic book, Eng. tr. G. French, Princeton 1984. The associated noun form muṣannaf has a technical usage in Islamic religious litera…

al-mad̲j̲nūn al-kūfī , the name of a lunatic of al-Kufā. We first meet him in the Bayān of al-Ḏj̲āḥiẓ (ed. Hārūn, ii, 230-1), who depicts him as a simpleton exposed to the rough jokes of passers-by, and definitely as a S̲h̲īʿī ( yatas̲h̲ayyaʿ ). It is possible that he met Hārūn al-Ras̲h̲īd at al-Kūfa in 188/804, as Ibn al-D̲j̲awzī reports ( al-Ad̲h̲kiyāʾ , ed. 1277, 180 ff.; see JRAS, 1907, 35), and perhaps he even addressed some remonstrances to him (al-S̲h̲aʿrānī, Ṭabaḳāt , 58); but it is certain that legend, as far back as the 4th/10th century and may…

, a term used, in almost all its occurrences, as the opposite of the word islām , and which refers to the state of affairs in Arabia before the mission of the Prophet, to paganism (sometimes even that of non-Arab lands), the pre-Islamic period and the men of that time. From the morphological point of view, d̲j̲āhiliyya seems to be formed by the addition of the suffix -iyya, denoting an abstract, to the active participle djāhil , the exact sense of which is difficult to determine. I. Goldziher ( Muḥ . St., i, 219 ff.; analysis in Arabica , vii/3 (1960), 246-9), remarking that djāhil is opposed to ḥalīm…

, patronymic which usually refers to two Ḥanafī jurisconsults who lived in Syria towards the end of the period of Ottoman rule. The first, Muḥammad Amīn b. ʿUmar b. ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz b. ʿĀbidīn, born in 1198/1784 at Damascus, studied first S̲h̲āfiʿī law and later Ḥanafī law, of which he became one of the most distinguished scholars of his time; he died at Damascus in 1258/1842. His best known work is a commentary on the Radd al-Muḥtār of al-Ḥaṣkafī (d. 1088/1677, published in Cairo in 1299 and in Istanbul in 1307). The second, his son ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn b. …

b. Abī waḳḳās al-Zuhrī abū ʿUmar , a Companion of the Prophet and a neph w of the more famous Saʿd b. Abī Waḳḳāṣ [ q.v.]. Converted to Islam on the day of the conquest of Mecca, he distinguished himself at the battle of the Yarmūk, where he lost an eye, and held important commands under his uncle at Ḳādisiyya and Ḏj̲alūlā. where he led the Arab forces. He was killed fighting on the side of ʿAlī at Ṣiffīn. (Ed.) Bibliography Caetani, Annali, index Tabarī, index.

, pseudonym of the Spanish traveller Domingo Badia y Leblich (Leyblich), b. 1766, d. 1818 in Syria, author of Voyages d’Ali-Bey el Abbassi en Afrique et en Asie pendant les années 1803, 1804, 1805, 1806 et 1807, 3 vols, and Atlas, Paris 1814; Travels of Ali Bey . . . between the years 1803 and 1807, 2 vols., London 1816. (Ed.) Bibliography P. Larousse, Grand Dictionnaire Universel du XIX e siècle, s.v. Badia y Leblich U. J. Seetzen, Reisen, iii, 373 f.

(Ital. posta ), borrowed into Ottoman Turkish and Arabic in the 19th century in the forms p/ bōsta , p/ bōsṭa to designate the new conception of European-style postal services in the Near East. In more recent times, it has been replaced at the formal level by barīd [ q.v.], a revival of the mediaeval Arabic term for the state courier and intelligence services, but būsta / busṭa and būstad̲j̲ī “postman” continue in use in the Arab Levant at the informal level, and posta remains the standard term in Modern Turkish. In modern Persian also post , from the French poste , is used. (Ed.)

(a.), a term denoting the dyeing of certain parts of the body (and especially, in regard to men, the beard and hair) by means of henna [see ḥinnāʾ ] or some similar substance. It is still used in this sense today, but is used moreover for the items of make-up and cosmetics employed by modern women; the reader may find under marʾa information about those items of cosmetics used by women attached to the traditional usages. (Ed.)

(d. 235/849), a K̲h̲azar military slave or g̲h̲ulām [ q.v.] who had been bought in 199/815 by the future caliph al-Muʿtaṣim, and who played an important role in the reigns of his master, of al-Wāt̲h̲iḳ and of al-Mutawakkil. At the opening of al-Wāt̲h̲iḳ’s caliphate, he was, with As̲h̲nās, the “mainstay of die caliphate”. After being commander of die guard in Sāmarrā, in 233/847 he was made governor of Egypt, but delegated his powers there to Hart̲h̲ama b. Naṣr (Ibn Tag̲h̲rībardī, Nud̲j̲ūm , ii, 265; al-Maḳrīzī, K̲h̲iṭaṭ , ed. Wiet, v, 136). It was he who, in…

, Mullā ʿAbd al-Raḥīm Tayd̲j̲awzī , a Kurdish poet who composed an ʿAḳīda-nāma and a celebrated dīwān in the Hawrāmī dialect of Gūrānī. He was born ca. 1222/1807 at Tāwagōz in D̲j̲awānrūd and died at Sars̲h̲āta, on the river Sīrwān near Ḥalabd̲j̲a, ca. 1300/1883. (Ed.) Bibliography V. Minorsky, The Gūrān, in BSOAS, xi (1943-5), 94 Pīramērd, Dīwān-i Mawlawī, 2 vols., Sulaymānīya, 1938-40 ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Sad̲j̲d̲j̲ādī, Mēz̲h̲ū-y adab-ī kurdī, Bag̲h̲dād 1952.

(t.), lit. “writer, secretary” < Tkis̲h̲. yaz- “write”, hence the Turkish equivalent of kātib , dabīr and muns̲h̲ī . The term was used in Ottoman times for the clerks in the various government departments, such as the ¶ treasury, with a bas̲h̲ yazi̊d̲j̲i̊ at their head. It could also be used for the secretaries of high court and military officials, e.g. of the Ḳi̊zlar Ag̲h̲asi̊ “Chief Eunuch of the Women”, who was also, in the 10th/16th century, in charge of the ewḳāf for the Ḥaramayn, Mecca and Medina, and other great mosques of the empire [see Ḥaramayn , at Vol. III, 175b]. (Ed.) Bibliography Gi…

(modern spelling Debdou; usual pron.: Dǝbdu, ethn. dəbdūbī , pl. dbādba ), a small town in eastern Morocco, at an altitude of 1,100 m., “at the foot of the right flank of the valley” of the Oued Dubdū “which rises in a perpendicular cliff to a height of 80 m. above the valley”; on a plateau nearby stands the fortress ( ḳaṣba [ ḳaṣaba ]) protected by a fosse on the side facing the mountain; on the left side of the valley lies a suburb named Mṣəllā. A dependency of the ʿamāla (under the administration of the French Protectorate in the region) of Oujda, it is the ce…

(a.), verbal noun of the verb kaffa in the sense of “to abstain, desist [from s.th.],” and “to repel [s.o. from s.th.]” (see WbKAS , i, Letter Kāf , 236-9), in a religio-political context refers to the quiescent attitude of some K̲h̲ārid̲j̲ite [ q.v.] groups in early Islam, called ḳaʿada “those who sit down”, i.e. stay at home, in abstaining from overt rebellion and warfare against the ruling authority. See further ḳuʿūd . (Ed.)

(t.), the term used in Ottoman Turkish military terminology for cannon, with ṭopd̲j̲u denoting a member of the corps of artillerymen and Ṭopk̲h̲āne being the name for the central arsenal in Istanbul. The Ṭopk̲h̲āne Gate there has given its name, in popular parlance, to the adjacent imperial palace; see ṭopḳapi̊ sarāyi̊ . The word tob / top originally in Turkish denoted “ball”, hence cannon-ball; it appears in almost all the Turkic languages and passed into the usage of Persian, the Caucasian and the Balkan languages, etc. See Doerfer, Türkische Elemente im Neupersischen …

, Mīrzā, Mug̲h̲al commander and governor, d. 1010/1601-2. The son of Mīrzā Aḥmad Riḍwī, he was appointed by the Emperor Akbar ṣūbadār or governor of Kas̲h̲mīr in 995/1586-7. He imposed Mug̲h̲al authority in the Kas̲h̲mīr valley and secured the submission of the Čak [ q.v. in Suppl.] chiefs. Yūsuf K̲h̲ān himself rebelled against the Mug̲h̲als in 1001/1592-3, but came back into favour and in 1003/1594-5 was dārūg̲h̲a or superintendent of the Ṭop-k̲h̲āna or arsenal. (Ed.) Bibliography Mohibbul Hasan, Kashmir under the sultans, Calcutta 1959, index A.R. Khan, Chieftains of the Mughal …

(a., lit. “separated”, “hived off”), in Indo-Muslim pronunciation mufaṣṣil , whence the British Indian conventional form Mofussil , an informal term of British Indian administrative usage, attested in British usage from the later 18th century but probably going back to Mug̲h̲al official usage. It denoted the provinces, the rural districts and stations, as opposed to the administrative headquarters of a Presidency, District or region, the ṣadr (in the Anglo-Indian usage of the Bengal Presidency, the Sudder ); hence going into the Mofussil could mean something like going into …

(t.), the Ottoman Turkish form of the pl. of the Arabic verbal noun taklīf “the act of imposing something [on someone]”, in this case, taxation. In Ottoman Turkish usage, tekālīf was used in the general sense of taxes, more or less synonymously with other terms like resm [ q.v.]. Writings on fiscal topics distinguished tekālīf-i s̲h̲erʿiyye , canonical taxes in accordance with the S̲h̲arīʿa (e.g. the zakāt , ʿus̲h̲r , k̲h̲arād̲j̲ . and d̲j̲izya ) from tekālīf-i fewḳalʿāde “extraordinary ones”, which could include ʿörfī ones, those imposed by the sultan an…

(local Kurdish d̲j̲wānrō ), a district of Persian Kurdistān lying to the west of Mt. S̲h̲āhō, between Avroman (Hawermān [ q.v.]) in the north, S̲h̲ahrizūr in the west, and Zuhāb and Rawānsar in the south and east. The country is generally mountainous and thickly wooded. The valleys are well watered and very fertile, being in effect the granary of the Avroman area. There is no river now known by this name, but Minorsky derives it from * Ḏj̲āwān-rūd , influenced by Persian d̲j̲awān ‘young’. A Kurdish tribe D̲j̲āwānī, listed by Masʿūdī ( Murūd̲j̲ , iii, 253; Tanbīh , 88),…

, a pre-Islamic sacred site and monastery at Balk̲h̲ [ q.v.] in what is now northern Afg̲h̲ānistān, destroyed by the Arab invaders, but famed in early Islamic history as the place of origin of the Barmakī family of officials and viziers in early ʿAbbāsid times, the eponym Barmak having been the head or abbot ( pramuk̲h̲a ) of Naw Bahār. See on the shrine, almost certainly a Buddhist one, al-barāmika . 1. Origins; to the Bibl . there should be added Le Strange, Lands , 421-2; Barthold, An historical geography of Iran , Princeton 1984, 14-15; R.W. Bulliet, Naw Bahār and the survival of Iranian Buddh…

, name of two districts ( ṭassūd̲j̲ ) of ʿIrāḳ, Upper and Lower Fallūd̲j̲a, which occupied the angle formed by the two arms of the lower Euphrates which flow finally into the Baṭīḥa [ q.v.], the Euphrates proper to the west (this arm is given various names by the geographers and is now called S̲h̲aṭṭ al-Hindiyya) and the nahr Sūrā (now S̲h̲aṭṭ al-Ḥilla) to the east. (Ed.) Bibliography Suhrāb, K. ʿAd̲j̲āʾib al-aḳālīm al-sabʿa, ed. H. von Mžik, Leipzig 1930, 124-5 Ṭabarī, index Balād̲h̲urī, Futūḥ, 245, 254, 265, 457 Bakrī, index Yāḳūt, s.v. Yaʿḳūbī-Wiet, 140 Masʿūdī, Murūd̲j̲, v, 337 A. Musil, T…

, Abū Bakr Yaḥyā b. Muḥammad b. Yūsuf al-Anṣārī , Andalusian poet, historian and traditionist, born at Granada in 467/1074. He had a profound knowledge of Arabic language and literature, and was a prolific poet, particularly of muwas̲h̲s̲h̲aḥāt . He was kātib of the amīr Abu Muḥammad Tās̲h̲fīn at Granada; but his fame rests on a history of the Almoravid dynasty entitled Taʾrik̲h̲ al-dawla al-lamtūniyya or al-Anwār al-d̲j̲aliyya fī ak̲h̲bār al-dawla al-murābiṭiyya ; at first ending at the year 530/1135 6, then continued by the author until short…

(the first spelling in e.g. Pīrī Reʾīs and Rās̲h̲id, the second in Pečewī), the Turkish name for the island of Corfu off the coast of Epirus. Pīrī Reʾīs gives a full account of the island, together with a map, in his Baḥriyye (ed. Kahle, Berlin and Leipzig 1926-7, i, 113-16, No. 54). The Ottomans never succeeded in dislodging from Corfu the Venetians, who controlled it from the opening of the 15th century until 1797, but there were two major Turkish attempts to occupy the island. The first took place in Rabīʿ I 944/August 1537 in the reign of Süleymān the Magnificent. The fleet …

(a.), lice (the individual louse being ḳamla ; some authorities believe that ḳaml applies only to females and that for males the term is ṣuʾāb , pl. ṣiʾbān , although the latter designates rather the nits). The family to which This hemipterous insect belongs has numerous species, but Arabic does not seem to have distinguished between them, for not even the head-louse ( pediculus capitis) and the body-louse ( p. vestimenti) are treated separately. Although the existence of nits which clung to the skin was known of, the louse was thought to be engendered spontaneously i…

(a.), also d̲j̲urm , a sin, fault, offence. In Ottoman usage, in the forms d̲j̲erīme and d̲j̲ereme , it denoted fines and penalties (see d̲j̲urm). In the modern laws enacted in Muslim countries it has become a technical term for crime ( d̲j̲urm in Pakistan). For the corresponding Islamic concepts, see ḥadd , and for penal law in general, ʿuḳūba . (Ed.)

(a.), the verbal noun from the form II verb warraḳa , literally, “the act of putting forth leaves, branches”, used as a term of art and architecture in the sense of arabesque, pattern of vegetal adornment and decoration. Al-tawrīḳ was taken into mediaeval Spanish usage as ataurique , whence Pedro de Alcala’s definition pintura de lazos morisca, tavrîq (Dozy and Engelmann, Glossaire des mots espagnols et portugais dérivés de l’Arabe 2 , Leiden 1869, 214). See further, arabesque. (Ed.)

, a term of ¶ Ottoman administration denoting the building presented by Sultan Meḥemmed IV in 1064/1654 to the Grand Vizier Derwīs̲h̲ Meḥmed Pas̲h̲a and intended to serve both as an official residence and as an office; after the Tanẓīmāt [ q.v.] period it became known as the Bāb-i̊ ʿĀlī [ q.v.] or Sublime Porte, and soon came to house most of the administrative departments of the Dīwān-i̊ Hümāyūn [ q.v.]. (Ed.) Bibliography M.Z. Pakalin, Osmanli tarih deyimleri ve terimleri sözlügü, Istanbul 1946-54, ii, 757.

, “the night-blind”, is the surname of a number of early Arab poets (17 in all; see al-Āmidī, al-Muʾtalif , 12 ff.; Ag̲h̲āni , index; L.A., s.v.); each of them is connected with a tribe (Aʿs̲h̲ā Banī Fulān) and, apart from the most celebrated of their number, al-Aʿs̲h̲ā of the Bakr (or the Ḳays) [ q.v.] and al-Aʿs̲h̲ā of the Hamdān [ q.v.], the following are worthy of note: al-Aʿs̲h̲ā of the Bāhila (ʿĀmir b. al-Ḥārit̲h̲ b. Riyāḥ) who is included among the aṣḥāb al-marāt̲h̲ī by Ibn Sallām, Ṭabaḳāt , ed. S̲h̲ākir, 169, 175 (with refs.); see also al-Buḥturī, Ḥamāsa , index; Abu Zayd al-Ḳuras̲h̲ī, Ḏj̲a…

b. Dald̲j̲ab. Ḳunāfa al-Kalbī (full genealogy in al-Tabarī, ii, 204, 428, and see Ibn al-Kalbī-Caskel, i, Table 286, ii, 572), tribal chief of the Kalb in Syria [see kalb b. wabara ], fl. in the early part of the 7th century. His son Baḥdal was the father of Maysūn [ q.v.], wife of the Umayyad caliph Muʿāwiya I and mother of Yazīd I, and a strenuous supporter of the Sufyānid cause. (Ed.) Bibliography See also H. Lammens, Etudes sur le règne du calife Moʿâwia Ier , in MFOB, iii (1908), 150.

, ancient districts of Upper Mesopotamia (al-D̲j̲azīra), often mentioned together. The first place derives its name from Bēth Ḳardū, the land of the Carduci, which became Bāḳardā; according to Yāḳūt, s.v., this form is found “in the books”, but the local people say Ḳardā. The district comprised ca. 200 villages, the most notable being al-D̲j̲ūdī and T̲h̲amānīn, and the district of Faysabūr; it produced mainly corn and barley. The original chef-lieu , Ḳardā, lost its importance and was replaced by Bāsūrīn. Bāzabdā, for its part, is the name of a district…

, a family of derebey s [ q.v.] in Ottoman Anatolia, who controlled the districts ( nāḥiyes ) of Tiyek, Ekbez and Hacılar in the eastern parts of the Amanus Mountains or Gâvur Daği (in the hinterland of Iskenderun [see iskandarūn ] in modern Turkey). They claimed hereditary power in the area from the time of Sultan Murād IV (1032-49/1623-40), when the latter, in the course of his campaign against the Persians in ¶ Bag̲h̲dād, granted these districts to a local shepherd ( ćobān ). By the 19th century, the family was divided into two branches, one controlling…

, a village of the premodern Indian province of Berār [ q.v.] situated on an affluent of the Pengangā river. Its main claim to fame is that it was the site of the battle in 1137/1724 when Niẓām al-Mulk Čīn Ḳilič K̲h̲ān [ q.v.] defeated the deputy governor of Ḥaydarābād Mubāriz K̲h̲ān and thereby established the virtual independence of the Niẓāms of Ḥaydarābād from the Mug̲h̲al empire. Niẓām al-Mulk changed the village’s name to Fatḥk̲h̲eldā. and this is now a small town in the Buldāna District in Maharās̲h̲tra State of the Indian Union (lat 20° 13′ N., long. 76° 29′). (Ed.) Bibliography Imperial…

, the name given by al-Masʿūdī ( Murūd̲j̲ , § 2226) to a group of four extremist S̲h̲īʿī ( g̲h̲ulāt ) sub-sects. This same author divides the g̲h̲ulāt into two categories each with four subdivisions: on one hand, the Muḥammadiyya [ q.v.], also known as the Mīmiyya (sc. the initial of Muḥammad); and on the other, the Muʿtazila or ʿAlawiyya (and vars.). These last also deified Muḥammad and ʿAlī but invert the hierarchy and place ʿAlī first (whence their name of ʿAyniyya), make Muḥammad the envoy of his son-in-law and blame him for having…

, the clan, a genealogical group between the family ( ahl , ʿāʾila , [ q.v.]) and the tribe [ ḥayy , ḳabīla , [ q.v.]), synonym of ʿas̲h̲īra [ q.v.]. In this sense, the word occurs in the title of süra iii, sūrat āl ʿImrān . The āl of the Prophet are the descendants of Hās̲h̲im and al-Muṭṭalib; when the S̲h̲iʿa restricted this concept to his nearest relatives and descendants [seeahl al-bayt], the Sunnīs enlarged it so as to include all his followers (cf. Lane, Lexicon , s.v.). Later, the term came to mean the dynasty of a ruler, e.g. āl ʿUt̲h̲mān , the Ottoman dynasty, āl Bū Saʿīd …

, nicknamed Ibn Abi ’l-Zawāʾid, minor Medinan poet of the period straddling the Umayyad and ʿAbbāsid dynasties. He was of Arab origin from the tribe of the Saʿd b. Bakr (Hawāzin) and seems to have owed his nickname to a malformation of the legs (fleshy excrescences showing on the legs); in al-Ag̲h̲ānī (xv, 34), the poet is nicknamed d̲h̲u ’l-zawāʾid (“he who has fleshy excrescences”). The ancient sources, with one exception only, are silent regarding him; K. al-Waraḳa and the Ṭabaḳāt of Ibn al-Muʿtazz, while mentioning numerous Bag̲h̲dādī artisans of t…

, ḥanzala b. al-s̲h̲arḳī , Muk̲h̲aḍram Arab poet, considered to be one of those endowed with an unduly long life (al-Sid̲j̲istānī, K. al-Muʿammarīn , ed. Goldziher, in Abh. zur arab . Philologie , ii, 62, asserts that he lived 200 years). During the D̲j̲ahiliyya he led the life of a brigand or ṣuʿlūk [ q.v.] and of a libertine (especially, at Mecca, in the company of al-Zubayr b. ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib), and he does not seem to have altered his ways in any measure after his conversion to Islam. He is said to have been killed at Ad̲j̲nādayn [ q.v.] in 13/634, but F. Bustānī ( DM, iv, 408-9) believes that ¶ he …

(“place of refuge”), the name of what is now a District in the Bihār State of the Indian Union. It straddles the plateau region of Čhot́ a Nāgpur. It was also the name of two fortresses which were built by the Rādjput Čero Rād̲j̲ās of Palamāw, which were attacked in the middle decades of the 11th/17th century by the Mug̲h̲al commander Dāwūd K̲h̲ān Ḳurays̲h̲ī, who made the Rād̲j̲ās tributary and erected several fine Islamic buildings at Palamāw. In the early years of the 20th century, Muslims constituted 8% of the population of the District. (Ed.) Bibliography Imperial gazetteer of India 2, xix…

(A., pl. fursān and also fawāris , probably for the sake of expressiveness) denotes the rider on horseback, and in principle cannot be applied to the man riding a donkey or mule. The horse was considered in the article faras, equitation will be discussed in furūsiyya , and in the present article we shall not dwell on subjects relating to the horse, but rather concentrate on the rider. It will be noticed immediately that, in Arabic, to ‘ride a horse’ is rendered by rakiba , with the result that the active participle rākib has the general sense “horseman”, while fāris has …

, literally, “level, smooth place”. There must have been several places in the Arabic lands named after this obvious topographical feature. Yāḳūṭ, Buldān , ed. Beirut, iii, 290-1, mentions a village in Bahrayn and a masd̲j̲id of that name in Kūfa (perhaps the mosque also known as the Ẓāfir one or that of ʿAbd al-Ḳays, cf. Hichem Djaït, Al-Kūfa , naissance de la ville islamique, Paris 1986, 298). (Ed.) Bibliography Given in the article.

, a singer of Persian origin, acquired as a slave by ʿAbd Allāh b. D̲j̲aʿfar b. Abī Ṭālib [ q.v.], and who flourished in the second half of the 1st century A.H. in Medina. His Persian style of singing was a great success there, compelling other singers to imitate it, but Nas̲h̲īṭ himself had to learn the Arab style and songs in order to enlarge his repertoire. He was one of the teachers of the ḳayna [ q.v.] ʿAzza al-Maylāʾ and of the renowned singer Maʿbad b. Wahb [ q.v.] (Ed.) Bibliography Ag̲h̲ānī 1, iv, 61, 63, vii, 188, xvi, 13 H.G. Farmer, A history of Arabian music to the XIIIth century, London 192…

, the generic name, used by local western Pand̲j̲ābīs and Balūč for the tract of northwestern India extending southwards from Swāt and Bad̲j̲awr in the north and up to the Sulaymān Mountains in the west. It was significant in the history of the later 9th/15th century and early 10th/16th century as a region from which the Lōdī [ q.v.] sultans of Dihlī drew many of their Afg̲h̲ān supporters. (Ed.) Bibliography Sir Olaf Caroe, The Pathans 550 B.C.-A.D. 1957, London 1958, index. See also rohilk̲h̲and.

, tak̲h̲alluṣ of Muḥammad Ḥusayn b. Ḵh̲alaf al-Tabrīzī, compiler of the Persian dictionary Burhān-i Ḳāṭiʿ , completed in 1062/1651-2 at Ḥaydarābād and dedicated to Sulṭān ʿAbd al-Allāh Ḳuṭb S̲h̲āh, ruler of Golconda. A new revised, annotated and illustrated edition of the Burhān-i , Ḳāṭiʿ was published in Tehran in 4 vols., 1330-5 s./1951-6 (ed. Muḥammad Muʿīn). A Turkish translation was presented to Sulṭan Selim III by the historian ʿĀṣim [ q.v.]. (Ed.)

In Ottoman usage the word ḳalam, pronounced ḳalem , was used figuratively to designate the secretariat of an official department or service, and then came to be the normal term for an administrative office. This usage has survived in modern Turkish, and is also current in Arabic. (Ed.)

(a.) is one of the names given to the mysterious letters placed at the head of 26 sūras of the Ḳurʾān, see al-ḳurʾān , D, d. Under ḳiṭʿa , there is a cross-reference to muḳaṭṭaʿa , with reference to the fragments of or extracts from a prose or verse work made by a compiler or anthologist, but a detailed consideration of these may be found under the heading muk̲h̲tārāt . Finally, it has been judged useful to reprint the article ḳiṭʿa from EI 1 since it is essentially concerned with the use of this term in mathematics. In this connection, reference may also be made to M. Souissi, La langue des mathémati…

, Abu ’l-Farad̲j̲ ʿAlī b. al-Ḥusayn al-Kātib , secretary of the chancery, man of letters, poet and physician, a native of Rayy but educated at Nis̲h̲āpūr, where he was introduced to Greek science. He belonged at first to the dīwān of ʿAḍud al-Dawla, for whom he wrote a number of letters; he appears at Arrad̲j̲ān in 354/965 during the visit of al-Mutanabbi, and he seems to have remained in the service of the Buwayhids until his death, probably in 410/1019 rather than 420/1029. In addition to a Dīwān , which is in part preserved in later anthologies, he was the …

, Banū , a name sometimes given in the mediaeval Arabic sources to the princes of the Mazyadids or Banū Mazyad [ q.v.] in central ʿIrāḳ. The name derives from the most famous member of the line, Ṣadaḳa (I) b. Manṣūr (479-501/1086-1108 [ q.v.]). (Ed.) Bibliography See that to mazyad, banū.

, name of an ancient locality, still existing, of ʿIrāḳ; it is situated on the Euphrates down-stream from al-Anbār [ q.v.] and near Dimmimā, from where the nahr ʿĪsā branched off towards Bag̲h̲dād. At al-Fallūd̲j̲a nowadays the main road from Bag̲h̲dād crosses the Euphrates. (Ed.) Bibliography Muḳaddasī, 115 Suhrāb, 123 Iṣṭak̲h̲rī, 84 Ibn Ḥawḳal, 165 Musil, The middle Euphrates, 269-71 Le Strange, 66, 68 (distinguishing two villages of the same name, the second at the point where the nahr al-Malik branches off; but there seems to be some confusion here) M. Canard, H’amdânides, 147.

(a), time, age; particularly the early part of the afternoon, until the sun becomes red; hence ṣalāt al-ʿaṣr , the ritual prayer in the afternoon, cf. ṣalāt . (Ed.)

(1846-1912), Ottoman religious scholar and preacher. Born and raised in Manāsti̊r in present-day Macedonia, he went to Istanbul as a young man, took medrese courses and taught at the Fatih Mosque. In 1874 he became preacher ( wāʿiẓ ) at the Dolmabahçe Mosque and then at the Aya Sofya, where he drew large crowds. He began his teaching career as professor of Arabic at the ʿAskerī Rüs̲h̲diyye in Eyüb, and in 1884 became teacher of jurisprudence in the Ḥuḳūḳ Mektebi , where he remained until he became a senator ( aʿyān aʿḍāsi̊ ) after the 1908 revolution. He taught co…

Meḥmed Čelebizāde , Ottoman Turkish official and Grand Vizier, born in Istanbul at an unknown date, died in ¶ 1174/1761. He was the son of the statesman and diplomat Mehmed Yirmisekiz Čelebi Efendi [ q.v], and accompanied his father on his diplomatic mission to France in 1132/1720-1. After a career as a secretary in the Dīwān-i Humāyūn , he himself was sent on embassies to Sweden and to France (1154-5/1741-2), and in 1169/1756 became Grand Vizier to ʿOt̲h̲mān III [ q.v.] for five-and-a-half months. He finished his career as governor of Egypt and then of Adana and Marʿas̲h̲,…

, Muḥyī al-Dīn Muḥammad b. Ḳuṭb al-Dīn Iznīḳī , Ottoman scholar and mystic. He was born in the early 9th/15th century, the son of Ḳuṭb al-Dīn Iznīḳī (d. 821/1418 [ q.v.]), himself a scholar and the author of works on tafsīr and fiḳh (see ʿOt̲h̲mānli̊ müʾellifleri , i, 144, romanised version, i, 124-5). He was in his early years the pupil of the famous muftī S̲h̲ams al-Dīn Muḥammad, Mollā Fanārī (d. 834/1431) [see fenārīzāde ], and later became interested in Ṣūfīsm. He wrote several works, many of them commentaries, e.g. on the mystical works of Ibn al-ʿArabī and his p…

, Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī Seyyid (1138-1201/1726-87), Ottoman Grand Vizier from 16 Ramaḍān 1196-25 Muḥarram 1197/25/August-31 December 1782. Of Janissary birth, he died as Serʿasker at Köstend̲j̲e [ q.v.] on 25 Muḥarram 1202/6 December 1787. (Ed.)

b. Muḥammad al-Ḥāsib (“the calculator”) al-Munad̲j̲d̲j̲im (“the astrologer”), mathematician, astronomer and astrologer who apparently lived in the 3rd/9th century. He wrote various works in the fields of his expertise, including one on the use of the astrolabe and al-Zīd̲j̲ al-kāfī , which are now lost, although they were known to scholars like al-Bīrūnī and ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Ṣūfī. A work on burning mirrors, K. fi ’l-Marāyā al-muḥriḳa , and another on mineralogy, the K. K̲h̲awāṣṣ al-aḥd̲j̲ār , do, however, survive. (Ed.) Bibliography Ibn al-Nadīm, Fihrist, ed. Tad̲j̲addud, 336 Ibn…

(reigned 915-35/1509-28), Rād̲j̲pūt ruler of the kingdom of Mēwāŕ [ q.v.] on the borders of Rād̲j̲āsthān and Mālwā, with his capital at Čitawŕ. He was a strenuous opponent of the Muslim rulers of northern and western India in the years before Bābur’s establishment of the Mug̲h̲al empire, and under him, Mēwāŕ became a major power in India. In the first 15 years of his reign, he made firm his power within Mēwāŕ and strengthened his position vis-à-vis his Muslim neighbours. The reaction of the ruler of Mālwā, Maḥmūd II K̲h̲ald̲j̲ī, against the ascendancy of his Rād̲j̲pūt wazīr Mēdinī Rāʾī [ q.v.]…

“land of the South Slavs”, a Balkan state which came into being through the peace treaties consequent on the end of the First World War, 1919-20 (St-Germain, Neuilly, Trianon), as the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes under the ruling house of its largest component, Serbia. According to the constitution which came into effect on 1 January 1921, this was to be a unitary state, but this was never fully achieved, and arrangements in August 1939 envisaged a federal stru…

b. Muḥammad b. Ismāʿīl... b. ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib, Zaydī Imām who reigned over Ṭabaristān [ q.v.] and D̲j̲urd̲j̲ān [see [ gurgān ] ¶ for some years during the second half of the 3rd/9th century. As the brother of al-Ḥasan b. Zayd [ q.v.] al-dāʿī al-kabīr , he succeeded him in 270/884 and received the title of al-dāʿī al-ṣag̲h̲īr and the laḳab or honorific title of al-Ḳāʾim bi ’l-Ḥaḳḳ. It is above all from this point that he is heard of, since before his assumption of power he seems to have lived in his brother’s shadow. The latter, howe…

(a., pl. mad̲h̲āhib ), inf. n. of d̲h̲-h-b , meaning “a way, course, mode, or manner, of acting or conduct or the like” (Lane, i, 983b); as a term of religion, philosophy, law, etc. “a doctrine, a tenet, an opinion with regard to a particular case”; and in law specifically, a technical term often translated as “school of law”, in particular one of the four legal systems recognised as orthodox by Sunnī Muslims, viz. the Ḥanafiyya, Mālikiyya, S̲h̲āfiʿiyya and Ḥanbaliyya [ q.vv.], and the S̲h̲īʿī Ḏj̲aʿfarī and Zaydiyya legal schools [see it̲h̲nā ʿas̲h̲ariyya ; zaydiyya ]. For an exposé of mad̲h̲h…

, Ṭayyārzāde ʿAtāʾ Allāh Aḥmad, known as ʿAṭāʾ Bey, Ottoman historian. He was born in Istanbul in 1225/1810, the son of a palace official. He himself was educated in the palace, and held various official positions. In 1293/1876 he went to the Ḥid̲j̲āz to take up an appointment as administrator of the sacred territory (ḥarām) of Mecca, and died in Medina in 1294/1877 or 1297/1880. His most important work is his five volume history, known as Taʾrīk̲h̲-i ʿAṭāʾ (Istanbul 1291-3/1874-6). Its chief interest derives from his intimate knowledge of the organ…

, Sayyid, Ṣūfī saint of Pānduʾā [ q.v.] in Bengal and pioneer writer in the Bengali vernacular, d. 819/1416. An adherent of the Čis̲h̲tī order, he and his descendants did much to popularise it in Bengal and Bihār and to create an atmosphere favourable to the rise of the Bhakti movement there. In the literary field, he introduced the use of rīk̲h̲ta , half-Persian, half-Bengali poetry. On the political plane, he secured the patronage of the S̲h̲arḳīs of D̲j̲awnpūr [ q.vv. ], and seems to have urged Sultan Ibrāhīm S̲h̲arḳī [ q.v.] to attack the Islamised Hindu line of Rād̲j̲ā Gaṇeśa [see rād̲j̲ā g…

al-ʿArūḍī , Abu ʿAbd Allāh S̲h̲ams al-Dīn Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan b. Sibāʿ al-D̲j̲ud̲h̲āmī , known also under the name of Ibn S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ al-Salāmiya, poet, grammarian and lexicographer, born at Damascus in 645/1247 and died there circa 722/1322. Ibn al-Ṣāʾig̲h̲, who taught grammar, prosody and belles-lettres in a shop in the jewellers’ quarter, is the author of a certain number of glosses and abridgements of famous works (commentary ¶ on Ibn Durayd’s Maḳṣūra , an abridgement of the Ṣaḥāḥ of al-D̲j̲awharī, an abridgement of the commentaries by Ibn K̲h̲arūf and by al-Sīrāfī on the Kitāb …

(a.), literally, “the throwing of pebbles”, a practice which probably goes back to early Arabia and whose most celebrated survival is in the ritual throwing of stones in the valley of Minā by the pilgrims returning from ʿArafāt in the course of the Meccan Pilgrimage [see al-d̲j̲amra ; ḥaḏj̲ḏj̲ . iii. c]. In Fahd’s view, the rite does not seem to have had any divinatory significance, but among suggestions regarding its origins is the one that it could have been a gesture of solidarity with a dead person, on whose tomb stones are placed. See the discussion in T. Fahd, La divination arabe, Leiden 1…

, Abū Muḥammad ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Dhakwān , Medinan traditionist and jurist of the 2nd/8th century, who came from a mawālī family. His father Abu ’l-Zinād (d. 130/747-8) had been made head of the k̲h̲arād̲j̲ of ʿIrāḳ, and he himself was appointed to a similar office at Medina. He then went to Bag̲h̲dād, where he died in 174/790-1 at the age of 74. His ¶ brother Abu ’l-Ḳāsim and his son Muḥammad also transmitted ḥadīt̲h̲ s. Goldziher ( Muh . Studien , i, 242 32-3, Eng. tr. i, 31, 38) noted that ʿAbd al-Rahman was one of those who, if they did not invent it, at least s…

, Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad b. ʿAbd Allāh b. ʿĪsā al-Murrī , Andalusian poet and particularly jurist, born at Elvira in 324/936, died in the same town in 399/1009. The few verses of his which we have are of a somewhat religious nature and show a rather pessimistic attitude and a leaning to asceticism which is expressed in his Ḥayāt al-ḳulūb . However, he is principally known as an independent Mālikī jurist and author of several works, in particular a commentary on the Muwaṭṭaʾ of Mālik, a summary of Saḥnūn’s Mudawwana , a Kitāb Aḥwāl al-sunna and a formulary which has …

, Abū Muʿāwiya al-Baṣrī, traditionist of Baṣra, b. 101/720 and d. in Baṣra S̲h̲awwāl 182/Nov.-Dec. 798. His father had been governor of al-Ubulla [ q.v.], presumably under the later Umayyads. He is described as the outstanding muḥaddit̲h̲ of Baṣra in his time, a t̲h̲iḳa and ḥud̲j̲d̲j̲a , and was the teacher of the historian and biographer K̲h̲alīfa b. K̲h̲ayyāṭ [see ibn k̲h̲ayyāṭ ]. Ibn Saʿd says that Yazīd was a supporter of the ʿUt̲h̲māniyya [ q.v.]. (Ed.) Bibliography Ibn Saʿd, vii/2, 44 Ibn Ḥad̲j̲ar, Tahd̲h̲īb, xi, 325-8 Ziriklī, Aʿlām 2, ix, 235.

, ʿIzz al-Dīn ʿAbd al-Salām b. Aḥmad b. G̲h̲ānim al-Maḳdisī al-Wāʿiẓ , author of works on mysticism or edification, of whose life little is known. He is said to have died in 678/1279. The best-known of his works is the Kas̲h̲f al-asrār , ʿan ( al-) ḥikam ( al-mūdaʿa fī ) al-ṭuyūr wa ’l-azhār , published and translated by Garcin de Tassy, Les oiseaux et les fleurs, Paris 1821 (tr. reprinted in 1876 in Allégories , récits poétiques , etc.; German tr. Peiper, Stimmen aus dem Morgenlande , Hirschberg 1850; lith. text, Cairo 1275, 1280; Būlāḳ ed. 1270, 1290; Cairo…