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(a.) «forteresse», est un élément assez fréquent dans les toponymes (par ex. Ḥiṣn al-Akrād, Ḥiṣn Kayfā [ q.vv.], etc.). Le présent article est un aperçu, dans la mesure des connaissances actuelles, du développement des fortifications dans diverses régions du monde musulman. Certains aspects de la question, l’architecture militaire du donjon et du bastion, sont examinés sous Burd̲j̲; d’autres le sont sous Ḳalʿa et Sūr. Les opérations offensives, les techniques de siège en général sont étudiées sous Ḥiṣār; sur les engins de siège employés avant l’invention de la poudre, voir ʿArrāda, …

(a.), “fortress”, is a fairly common element in place-names, e.g., Ḥiṣn al-Akrād, Ḥiṣn Kayfā [ qq.v.], etc. This article surveys, so far as the present state of knowledge permits, the development of fortifications in certain areas of the Islamic world. Some aspects of this subject, the military architecture of the donjon and the bastion, are treated s.v. burd̲j̲ and others s.vv. ḳalʿa and sūr . Offensive operations, the techniques of siege-craft, are dealt with in general s.v. ḥiṣār ; for siege-engines employed before the invention of gunpowder, see ʿarrāḍa , ḳaws and man-d̲j̲anīḳ …

OVERVIEW of the entry: i. Introduction, ii. An Overview of Relations: Safavid to the Present, iii. British influence in Persia in the 19th century, iv. British influence in Persia, 1900-21, v. British influence during the Reżā Shah period, 1921-41, vi. British influence in Persia, 1941-79, vii. British Travelers to Persia, viii. British Archeological Excavations, ix. Iranian Studies in Britian, Pre-Islamic, x. Iranian Studies in Britain, the Islamic Period, xi. Persian Art Collections in Britain…

Evidence for ancient standards is provided by examination of weights surviving from antiquity, and from inspection of certain specimens of ingot currency. There are six surviving, well-preserved Achaemenid weights with inscriptions. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES i. PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD Units of weight. The standard unit of weight in the ancient Middle East was the shekel ( šiqlu), best known from that of the Babylonian standard. It was enforced throughout the Achaemenid Empire by Darius I the Great (r. 522-486) around 515 BCE. In this system, the shekel stood…

OVERVIEW of the entry: i. Geography, ii. Dašt-e Gorgān, iii. Population, iv. Archeology, v. Pre-Islamic history, vi. History from the rise of Islam to the beginning of the Safavid Period, vii. To the end of the Pahlavi era. A version of this article is available in print Volume XI, Fascicle 2, pp. 139-154 GORGĀN i. Geography GORGĀN, the ancient Hyrcania, an important Persian province at the southeast corner of the Caspian sea. In June 1997, the eastern part of the Māzandarān Province, consisting of the two sub-provinces of Gorgān and Gonbad-e Kāvus/Qābus (formerly c…

medieval township in Kermān province, located at 57° 29 E and 47° N, 70 km by road south of Kermān City (historical Bardsir) at the intersection of the medieval eastern highway and the route from Kermān to Bāft, Esfandaqa, and Jiroft. A version of this article is available in print Volume XI, Fascicle 1, pp. 19-20 ḠOBAYRĀ, medieval township in Kermān province, located at 57° 29 E and 47° N, 70 km by road south of Kermān City (historical Bardsir) at the intersection of the medieval eastern highway and the route from Kermān to Bāft, Esfandaqa, and Jiro…

ruler of the Great Kushan lineage, successor of Kaniška I the Great, known chiefly from inscriptions and from a prolific coinage. He reigned from at least the year 28 to 60 of the Kaniška Era, equivalent to 154-86 CE. A version of this article is available in print Volume XII, Fascicle 6, pp. 583-585 HUVIŠKA, ruler of the Great Kushan lineage, successor of Kaniška I the Great, known chiefly from inscriptions, and from a prolific coinage, who reigned from at least the year 28 to 60 of the Kaniška Era, equivalent to 154-86 C.E. The first date derives…

(Arabic Hayṭāl, pl. Hayāṭela), a people who formed apparently the second wave of “Hunnish” tribal invaders to impinge on the Iranian and Indian worlds from the mid-fourth century CE. A version of this article is available in print Volume XII, Fascicle 2, pp. 198-201 HEPHTHALITES (Arabic Hayṭāl, pl. Hayāṭela), a people who formed apparently the second wave of “Hunnish” tribal invaders to impinge on the Iranian and Indian worlds from the mid-fourth century C.E. The first invaders, known simply as “Huns” (see CHIONITES), representing Gk. *Xίων “…

Indo-Parthian king (20-46 C.E.) in Drangiana, Arachosia, and especially in the Punjab. A version of this article is available in print Volume XI, Fascicle 2, pp. 135-136 GONDOPHARES (OPers. Vindafarnah- “May he find glory”), Indo-Parthian king (20-46 C.E.) in Drangiana, Arachosia (qq.v.), and especially in the Punjab. He is known from the apocryphal Acts of Thomas, the Takht-i Bahi inscription, and coin-issues in silver and copper. Thomas, the Christian “apostle to India,” a carpenter, was after the crucifixion (probably 29 C.E.) sold into slavery t…

the line of rulers in Bactria, Central Asia and northern India from the first century CE. KUSHAN DYNASTY (Kušān), the line of rulers in Bactria, Central Asia and northern India from the first century CE. The Kushan kings were succeeded in the third century, in part of the region they had ruled, by the Sasanian princes who governed with the title of “Kushanshah” (q.v.). KUSHAN DYNASTY i. Dynastic History KUSHAN DYNASTY (Mid. Pers. Kušān, Bactrian Košano) of the 1st-3rd centuries CE. During the first to mid-third centuries CE, the empire of the Kushans (Mid. Pers. Kušān-šahr) …

(ESTAḴR, STAḴR), city and district in ancient Persia (Fārs). It was presumably a suburb of the urban settlement once surrounding the Achaemenid royal residences, of which few traces survive. After the death of Seleucus I (280 B.C.), when the province began to re-assert its independence, its center seems to have developed at Eṣṭaḵr. A version of this article is available in print Volume VIII, Fascicle 6, pp. 643-646 EṢṬAḴR (ESTAḴR, STAḴR), city and district in ancient Persia (Fārs). i. HISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY Eṣṭaḵr is situated in the narrow valley of the Polvār River, between…

name of two Greek kings of Bactria: (1) Euthydemus I (ca. 230-200 B.C.E.), considered the real founder of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom and (2) Euthydemus II (ca. 190-185 B.C.E.), presumably the second son of Euthydemus I, or less probably eldest son of Demetrius I. A version of this article is available in print Volume IX, Fascicle 1, pp. 76-77 EUTHYDEMUS, name of two Greek kings of Bactria. Euthydemus I (ca. 230-200 B.C.E.), considered the real founder of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, was of a family originally from Magnesia-on-the-Meander (apparently not Magnesia…

name of various Iranian historical figures; an Iranian epic hero in wars against the “Turanians” in northeastern Iran; and the scion of a clan of paladins in Iranian traditional history. A version of this article is available in print Volume XI, Fascicle 1, pp. 31-39 GŌDARZ, name of various Iranian historical figures; an Iranian epic hero in wars against the “Turanians” in northeastern Iran; and the scion of a clan of paladins in Iranian traditional history. I. HISTORICAL FIGURES The name Gōdarz (Gk. Gotarzes) was borne by two Arsacid kings, by Parthian princes and nobles,…

The temple excavated at this site appeared to be a fire-temple of dynastic character, dedicated for the rulers of the Kushan dynasty. It was founded perhaps early in the reign of Kanishka, and restored in the year 31 of a different era, probably of Kanishka I’s own enthronement. A version of this article is available in print Volume III, Fascicle 4, pp. 416-418 i. Kushan Period The name originally derives from the Bactrian bagolango “image-temple” (< OIr. * baga-dānaka-), a term used in the inscription of Nokonzoko (SK4) from the archeological site of Surkh (Sorḵ) Kotal i…

name of two Greco-Bactrian kings. A version of this article is available in print Volume VII, Fascicle 3, pp. 257 DEMETRIUS ,name of two Greco-Bactrian kings. Demetrius I, son of Euthydemus I. While still crown prince of Bactria Demetrius conducted, on behalf of his father, negotiations with the Seleucid Antiochus III in 206-205 B.C.E.; Antiochus considered Demetrius “worthy of kingship because of his distinction, conversational rapport, and capacity for leadership” and promised him one of his own daughters in marriage. Havin…