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(a.), two terms of modern Arabic political terminology meaning respectively “the balance of powers” and “the separation of powers”. For concepts of authority or government in the premodern Islamic world, see salṭana and sulṭan . Amongst many other terms with the connotations of power and authority, the word s̲h̲awka has the particular one of physical, coercive power, irrespective of any legitimacy. The ideas of the Enlightenment and the main principles of modern democracy were transmitted to the ¶ Middle East mainly by the translations and accounts …

(a.), family planning, denotes the conscious planning of the occurrence of a pregnancy, including decisions on the interval between pregnancies. Social and legal aspects. Family planning has become a major issue of religiopolitical controversy over the last decades, particularly since the late 1950s and early 1960s, when several Islamic countries (first Egypt, Pakistan and Tunisia) began to respond to the dangers of rapid population growth. Governments gradually realised that growing population pressure impedes their economic development. ¶ (Egyptian economists and stud…

(or Ṭāliḳānī ), Āyatullāh Sayyid Maḥmūd (1911-79), prominent Iranian cleric and political activist, one of the outstanding representatives of S̲h̲īʿī modernism in Iran and a key figure in the Islamic Revolution in Iran of 1978-9. He was born in a village of the Ṭālaḳān valley [see ṭālaḳān. 2] to the northwest of Tehran, to a father who was himself an ʿālim and political activist. After studying in Ḳum and Nad̲j̲af, including under such noted teachers as the Āyatullāh Ḥāʾirī Yazdī [see Ḥāʾirī, in Suppl.], he settled at Tehran in 1939, teaching at the Sipahsālār Seminary. He s…

, Āg̲h̲ā Buzurg , Twelver S̲h̲rʿī scholar and bibliographer (born Tehran 11 Rabīʿ I 1293/6 April 1876, died Nad̲j̲af 13 D̲h̲u ’l-Ḥid̲j̲d̲j̲a 1389/20 February 1970. He stemmed from a merchant family. From 1315/1898 onwards he studied at Nad̲j̲af. After the death in 1329/1911 of his teacher S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Muḥammad Kāẓim K̲h̲urāsānī [ q.v.], Āg̲h̲ā Buzurg went to Kāẓimayn and shortly afterwards to Sāmarrāʾ in order to study under Muḥammad Taḳī ¶ al-S̲h̲īrāzī [ q.v.]. Only in 1354/1936 did he return to Nad̲j̲af, where he remained until his death. Āg̲h̲a Buzurg’s renown as a…

, the nisba of a family of prominent S̲h̲īʿī ʿulamaʾ active in Persia and Irak over the last century and a half. 1. Mīrzā Muḥammad Ḥasan b. Maḥmūd, called Mīrzā-yi S̲h̲īrāzī-yi buzurg and al-Mud̲j̲addid (1230-1312/1815-95). Born in S̲h̲īrāz, he studied in Iṣfahān and Nad̲j̲af, and after Murtaḍā Anṣārī’s [ q.v. in Suppl.] death in 1281/1864, became the leading S̲h̲īʿī scholar and sole mard̲j̲aʿ al-taḳlīd [ q.v.]. He is best known for his opposition to the Tobacco Régie in Persia (1891) [see nāṣir al-dīn s̲h̲āh ], and it seems that his famous fatwā was in part prov…

(a., verbal noun of form I), basically meaning, according to the authoritative lexicologists, “putting a thing in a place not its own” (Lane, LA, TA), i.e. displacement. In the moral sphere, it denotes acting in such a way as to transgress the proper limit and encroach upon the right of some other person. In common usage, ẓulm has come to signify wrongdoing, evil, injustice, oppression and tyranny, particularly by persons who have power and authority. Frequently it is therefore used as the antonym to ʿadl [ q.v.], inṣāf [ q.v.] and ḳisṭ and (sometimes by expressi…

, postage stamps. Postage stamps (Ar. ṭābiʿ [ barīdī ]; Pers. tambr ; Tk. pul ) are a Western innovation. The world’s first postage stamp—the “penny black” bearing the portrait of young Queen Victoria—was issued by Great Britain in 1840. There exists an evident connection between the spread of the “postage stamp revolution” and European overseas expansion. Besides Great Britian, other European countries, above all France, but also Austria, Germany, Italy and Spain were responsible for the…

(a., verbal noun of form V of ṭ-r-f ), at present the usual Arabic word for extremism, radicalism. Metaphorically, the term is understood as the opposite of “moderate”. The latter meaning is connected with the topos of the “the golden mean” between two extremes, which has been current since Antiquity and has served as a definition for the concept of moderation (A. tawassuṭ , iʿtidāl ). After World War II the concept of extremism found its way into academic literature, and since the 1970s has been specifically used in Islamic and Oriental…

[German Version] I. Religious Studies – II. Ethics – III. Islam I. Religious Studies The notion that birth can be understood, not as a “natural” but a “cultural” process includes, among other things, what we today call birth control. Whether and how a child is accepted into the framework of human society is, thus, not least the object of a – both socially (or religiously) and individually determined…

[German Version] (Arab. Lībiyā, based on the Italian or Greek name, possibly from Egypt. Libu, the name of a North African tribe), official name (since 1986) “Great Socialist Libyan Arabic People's Jamahiriya” (Arab. al-Ğamāhīrīya al-ʿArabīya al-Lībīya aš-Šaʿbīya al-Ištirākīya al-ʿUẓmā), is the easternmost of the four Maghreb states and has a relatively homogeneous native population of roughly five million (approx. 90% Arabs and Arabized Berbers, over 95% of whom are Sunnis of the Maliki school of jurisprudence). Ibadis (Ḫāriğites; …

[German Version] I. Social Sciences Since its Greek origins, politics has meant (a) an action with a specific object, aiming to achieve the best way for all the inhabitants of the ancient city-state ( pólis) to live together and hence achieve the common good of the ¶ community ( koinón), and (b) the theory of this action (Sellin; see also Political science). Given that we no longer live in small urban societies but in large, open, and functionally complex societies (Society), politics includes – but cannot be limited to – the system of state g…

[German Version] I. Religio-Cultural Journals – II. Journals of Religious Studies – III. Christianity – IV. Judaism – V. Islam I. Religio-Cultural Journals During the second half of the 19th century, the publication of German-language journals experienced a tremendous upsurge. While the year 1890 saw the publication of 3,203 individual titles, the number had grown to 5,231 by the year 1900 and to 6,689 by 1914. Journals became the preferred medium in academia and culture. In the field of theology, the proportion …

(a.), nom d’action de la forme V de t-r-f, actuellement le terme arabe usuel pour désigner l’extrémisme, le radicalisme. Il signifie littéralement «s’écarter», «dévier» ( inḥirāf), «ne pas (vouloir) s’en tenir constamment à une chose» (cf. Lane, s.u.), «exagérer». Métaphoriquement, le mot s’entend comme le contraire de «modéré». Cette dernière acception renvoie à l’éternelle idée de «juste milieu» entre deux extrêmes, associée au concept de «modération» ( tawassuṭ, iʿtidāl), par opposition au «radicalisme». La notion d’extrémisme a fait son entrée après la Secon…

, nisba d’une famille d’éminents ʿulamā’ s̲h̲īʿites active en Perse et en Irak aux XIXe et XXe siècle; 1. Mīrzā Muhammad Hasan b. Mahmud, dit Mīrzā-yi S̲h̲īrāzī-yi buzurg et aussi al-mud̲j̲addid (1230-1312/1815-95). Né à S̲h̲īrāz, il fit des études à Isfahān et à Nad̲j̲af, et après la mort de Murtada Ansārī [ q.v. au Suppl.] en 1281/1864, devint le plus grand savant s̲h̲īʿite et le seul mard̲j̲a’ al-taklīd [ q.v.]. Il est surtout connu pour son opposition à la Régie des Tabacs de Perse (1891) [voir Nāsir al-dīn S̲h̲āh], et il semble que sa fameuse fatwā ait été en partie inspirée par les …

, Āg̲h̲ā Buzurg, savant s̲h̲īʿite duodécimain et bibliographe, né à Téhéran le 11 Rabīʿ I 1293/6 avril 1876, mort à Nad̲j̲af le 13 dhū l-ḥid̲j̲d̲j̲a 1389/20 février 1970, appartenait à une famille de marchands, qui avait vécu à Téhéran depuis 1250/1834. Après une première formation à Téhéran, Āg̲h̲ā Buzurg continuait, à partir de 1315/1898, ses études islamiques à Nad̲j̲af. Après la mort de son maître, S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Muḥammad Kāzim Ḵh̲urāsānī [ q.v.] en 1329/1911, Āg̲h̲ā Buzurg se rendit à Kāẓimayn et bientôt après à Sāmarrāʾ pour étudier sous Muḥammad Takī al-S̲h̲īrāzī [ q.v.]. Ce n’étai…

, (a., nom verbal de 1ère forme), signifie principalement, après les lexicologues faisant autorité, «mettre une chose à un endroit qui n’est pas sa place» ¶ (Lane, LA, TA), c’est-à-dire déplacement. Dans le domaine de la morale, il désigne le fait d’agir en dépassant (en allant au-delà de) ses propres limites et en empiétant sur les droits d’une autre personne. Dans l’usage courant, ẓulm en est venu à désigner le fait de causer un tort, faire du/le mal, pratiquer l’injustice, l’oppression et la tyrannie, en particulier par des personnes détenant pouvoir et …

(a.), deux termes de la terminologie politique en arabe moderne signifiant respectivement «la balance des pouvoirs» et «la séparation des pouvoirs». Pour ce qui est des concepts d’autorité ou de gouvernement dans le monde islamique pré moderne, voir Salṭana et Sulṭān. Parmi de nombreux autres termes ayant les connotations de pouvoir et d’autorité, le mot s̲h̲awka a le sens particulier de pouvoir physique, coercitif, exempt de toute légitimité. Les idées du siècle des Lumières et les principes fondamentaux de la démocratie moderne furent transmis au Moyen Orient …

(a.), planning familial indiquant la planification volontaire de la survenue d’une grossesse, y compris les décisions prises dans l’intervalle séparant deux grossesses. ¶ Aspects sociaux. Le planning familial est devenu un thème majeur de controverse politico-religieuse au cours des dernières décennies, particulièrement depuis la fin des années 1950 et le début des années 1960, depuis que plusieurs pays islamiques (avant tout l’Egypte, le Pakistan et la Tunisie) ont commencé à vouloir répondre aux dangers d’un accroisse…

[English Version] I. Sozialwissenschaftlich Seit seinen griech. Anfängen bez. »P.« a) ein Handeln mit spezifischem Gegenstand, das auf die richtige Gestalt des Zusammenlebens aller in der antiken Stadtgesellschaft (»polis«) und insofern auf das Wohl des Gemeinwesens (»koinon«) aus ist, und b) die Theorie darüber (vgl. Sellin; s.a. Politikwissenschaft). P. schließt, unter Berücksichtigung, daß wir in großen, offenen, funktional ausdifferenzierten Gesellschaften leben (anstatt kleiner Stadtgesellschaften), das innere und äußere Sicherh…

[English Version] I. Religiös-kulturelle Zeitschriften In der 2. Hälfte des 19.Jh. erlebte das deutschsprachige Zeitschriftenwesen einen großen Aufschwung. Für 1890 waren 3203, für 1900 bereits 5231 und für 1914 6689 Einzeltitel erfaßt. Die Z. wurde zum Leitmedium in Wiss. und Kultur. In der Theol. stieg ihr Anteil an den Gesamterscheinungen zw. 1800 und 1908 von 8,3 auf 26,5%. Zw. Fachzeitschriften und Gemeindeblätter schob sich im Zuge der Differenzierung der Zeitschriftenprofile der Typus der rel…