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(also, but more rarely: Dār al-ṣanʿa ). Etymologically, this compound can be translated “industrial establishment, workshop”. In fact it is always applied to a State workshop: for example, under the Umayyads in Spain to establishments for gold and silver work intended for the sovereign, and for the manufacture and stock-piling of arms. But the sense most widely used is that of “establishment for the construction and equipment of warships”: dār ṣināʿa li-ins̲h̲āʾ al-sufun ; or simply dār al-ins̲h̲āʾ , which also occurs. This does not include the arsen…

(a.), wood. In the major part of the Muslim world, wood is fairly scarce and for this reason plays a relatively minor rôle in the material life of its populations in comparison with that of societies in which it is more plentiful. However, precisely because its use is limited, it occupies an important place in artistic creation, for example in private furniture and the appurtenances of mosques. Architecturally, it is employed for doors, roofs, arches, etc. and ceilings; it is also used in the ga…

, name of three-Sald̲j̲ūḳid sultans of Rum. Kayk̲h̲usraw i , son and one of the successors of Kilid̲j̲ Arslān II [ q.v.]. When the latter, at the age of about seventy, decided ca. 583/1187 to divide his territories among his ten sons, a brother and a nephew, G̲h̲iyāth al-Dīn Kayk̲h̲usraw got Sozopolis or Uluborlu, on the borders of the Byzantine territory, perhaps because he was the son of a Byzantine mother. He thus came in contact with Greek Christians on one side, with groups of Turkmen frontier warriors ( ud̲j̲ ) who were pushing forward in that direction on…

, Yaḥyā b. Ḥamīd al-Nad̲j̲d̲j̲ār al-Ḥalabī (575/1180- ca. 625-30/1228-33), an important S̲h̲īʿī historian of Aleppo, and in particular the author of a universal History, Maʿādin al-d̲h̲ahab fi taʾrīk̲h̲ al-mulūk wa ’l-k̲h̲ulafāʾ wa d̲h̲awi ’l-ratab , which even the Sunnī writers, whether or not they acknowledge the fact, were unable to refrain from utilizing. Important extracts from it are to be found preserved in the History of Ibn al-Furāt [ q.v.] and the Rawḍatayn of Abū S̲h̲āma [ q.v.], dealing with the first three-quarters of the 6th/12th century; it was known also …

, Ḍiyāʾ al-Dīn Muḥammad b. Muḥammad b. Aḥmad al-Ḳuras̲h̲ī al-S̲h̲āfiʿī , known as Ibn al-Uk̲h̲uwwa, author of a manual of ḥisba , enlarging, from an Egyptian point of view, that of the Syrian writer of the previous century, al-S̲h̲ayzarī. It was published by R. Levy, with an analysis in English, under the doubtful title of Maʿālim al-ḳurba fī aḥkām al-ḥisba ( GMS, n.s. xii, London 1938); according to the only biographical notice so far discovered, that by Ibn Ḥad̲j̲ar ( Durar , Ḥaydarābād no. 446), the author died in 729/1329, and nothing more is known of him. (Cl. Cahen) Bibliography In addit…

verbal noun of the fourth form of the root w.g̲h̲.r . (?), meaning here an exemption or a privilege with respect to taxes. The classical ʿAbbāsid administration used This term both for the privilege, and for the land which was covered by This privilege, of having to pay only one single tax payment, directly to the Treasury and not through tax-collectors. The districts of Mard̲j̲ and Karad̲j̲ in western Iran are regularly referred to as al-Ig̲h̲ārayn even after they had lost the official status which earned them This name. In the following centuries the term īg̲h̲ār d…

(or ḳarasi̇ ). 1. The name of a Turkish chief in Asia Minor and of the dynasty arising from him; his territory has retained this name until the present time (sc. the ancient Mysia, the coastland and hinterland of the Asiatic side of the Dardanelles). Only unsubstantiated hypotheses have so far been put forward for the sense and etymology of the name. Indeed, the whole history of the dynasty, the first of those which were to be suppressed by the Ottomans, is wrapped in obscurity. The Byzantine historian Ducas, who wrote 150 years after the events in question, classes Ḳarasi̊ amon…

, name of two Sald̲j̲ūḳid sultans of Rūm (Asia Minor). Kaykāʾūs I . Succeeding his father Kayk̲h̲usraw I [ q.v.] after the battle in which the latter perished (608/1211), he at first had to rid himself of the rivalry of his brothers Kayferīdūn and Kayḳubād̲h̲ [ q.v.]. After that he had no further internal difficulties. His reign is particularly marked by the combination of a policy of peace towards the Greeks of Nicaea with interventions on the southern, northern and eastern frontiers. In the south, where Kayk̲h̲usraw had taken Anṭāliya, he…

, name of one of the Kurdish chieftains (and of the dynasty descended from him) who, in the 4th/10th century and at the beginning of the 5th/11th century, succeeded in founding and maintaining in Western Iran and Upper Mesopotamia more or less autonomous and lasting principalities. Ḥasanwayh b. Ḥusayn (Abu ’l-Fawāris) belonged to a branch of the Kurdish tribe of the Barzikānī, other groups of which were led by several of his relatives (Ibn al-At̲h̲īr, viii, 518-9). The death of two uncles (349/960 and 350/961) and the …

(i)—the poll-tax which, in traditional Muslim law, is levied on non-Muslims in Muslim states. The history of the origins of the d̲j̲izya is extremely complex, for three different reasons: first, the writers who, in the ʿAbbāsid period, tried to collect the available materials relating to the operation of the d̲j̲izya and the k̲h̲arād̲j̲ found themselves confronted by texts in which these words were used with different meanings, at times in a wide sense, at others in a technical way and even then varying, so that in order to …

, a stronghold of eastern Anatolia situated on a rock (Armenian, pert ) 350 m./1,100 ft. above the plain of K̲h̲anzit [ q.v.], to be identified with the Ḥiṣna Zayt of the Aramaic texts (and already in Ammianus Marcellinus, castellum Ziata , whence, through a confusion, the Arabic Ḥiṣn Ziyād, a term in use till the 16th century). The corrupted form K̲h̲arput is found in colloquial Armenian (whence already in the Byzantine author Cedrenos, ii, 419) and in modern Turkish. The Latin and French authors at the time of t…

, term for a form of administrative grant, often (wrongly) translated by the European word “fief” (German Lehn). The nature of the iḳṭāʿ varied according to time and place, and a translation borrowed from other systems of institutions and conceptions has served only too often to mislead Western historians, and following them, even those of the East. In the article ḍayʿa it was seen how the Muslim state, in its early centuries, had distributed to its notables portions of its territory called ḳaṭāʾiʿ (pl. of ḳaṭīʿa ). These portions were made over, in fact, in…

(a.) “protection”, is used, often together with ḥimāya [ q.v.], to designate certain social practices. Originally, it primarily denoted the protection which Arab tribes extended to merchants, travellers and pilgrims crossing their territories, often in return for payment or as part of an agreement [see īlāf ]. Later, the word’s usage became extended to the “protection” in return for an obligatory payment exacted by various social groups from other groups or from richer individuals (e.g., by the ʿayyārūn and futuwwa [ qq.v.] in the towns). Once the military class had assumed …

( Banū ), the name of one of the families which hereditarily shared among themselves the high administrative offices under the Buwayhid régime. The founder of this family’s fortune was Abu ’l-Faḍl al-ʿAbbās b. Fasand̲j̲us, a rich notable of S̲h̲īrāz who, after being fined 600,000 dirhams by ʿAlī b. Buwayh (ʿImād al-Dawla), had taken a part in the farming of taxes for that prince (322/934), and then, in 338/949, had entered the service of Muʿizz al-Dawla, for whom he administe…

(A.) «caution», terme juridique employé surtout en matière de technique fiscale, d’une façon que nous avons encore beaucoup de peine à préciser. Le domaine où la discussion nous place est double: celui de la perception de l’impôt foncier ( k̲h̲arād̲j̲ [ q.v.]) et celui des taxes spéciales ( mukūs). Comme cela était déjà le cas avant la conquête arabe tant dans l’empire byzantin que chez les Sāsānides, les collectivités locales sont solidairement responsables devant le fisc du versement à heure voulue du montant ¶ de l’impôt foncier exigible. Néanmoins, il arrive fréquemment qu…

Important affluent de droite du bas Oronte (al-ʿĀṣī [ q.v.], qu’il atteint après s’être mêlé dans le Lac d’Antioche au Nahr Yāghrā (Murad Pas̲h̲a) et au Nahr al-Aswad (Kara-Su), dans le district du ʿAmq. Sa large vallée moyenne, comprise entre le Ḏj̲abal Smān et le Kurd Dag̲h̲, constituait au moyen âge le district de la Djūma. Son importance résidait dans le croisement de la route qui l’emprun tait, et qui reliait Antioche aux pays de l’Euphrate supérieur, avec celles qui menaient de Cilicie et d’Asie-Mi…

, l’impôt de capitation qui, dans le droit musulman traditionnel, frappe les non-musulmans des États musulmans. L’histoire des origines de la d̲j̲izya est extrêmement complexe, pour trois ordres de raisons: d’abord, les auteurs qui, à l’époque ʿabbāside, ont essayé de réunir les matériaux disponibles sur le régime de la d̲j̲izya et du k̲h̲arād̲j̲ se sont trouvés devant des textes où ces mots sont employés en des sens divers, tantôt larges, tantôt techniques et là-même variables, que, pour aboutir à un tableau rationnel, ils ont eu tendance à inte…

, Abū l-Ḥasan ʿAlī b. ʿUt̲h̲mān al-Ḳuras̲h̲ī, auteur d’un important traité fiscal longtemps oublié, le Minhād̲j̲ fī ʿilm k̲h̲arād̲j̲, Miṣr, dont une grande partie a été récemment retrouvée dans le ms. acéphale Add. 23483 du British Museum. Al-Mak̲h̲zūmī appartenait à une grande famille remontant aux origines de l’Islam. Il était ḳāḍī, et c’est à ce titre, bien qu’il fût s̲h̲āfiʿite comme presque tous les Égyptiens, que les Fāṭimides, conformément à leur habitude, lui avaient confié des fonctions de contrôle des employés du fisc, presque tous co…

, Nūr al-dawla Balak b. Bahrām b. Artuḳ, l’un des premiers Artuḳides, connu surtout comme rude guerrier. Il apparaît dans l’histoire lorsqu’il est installé, en 489/1096, au commandement de Sarūd̲j̲ sur le moyen-Euphrate. Cependant, cette place lui ayant été enlevée dès l’année suivante par les Croisés, et son oncle Ilg̲h̲āzī ayant été nommé gouverneur du ʿIrāḳ par le sultan Muḥammad, il l’accompagne, et on le trouve les années suivantes disputant vainement à des Arabes les petites villes de ʿĀna et Ḥad…

, Yaḥyā b. Ḥamīd al-Nad̲j̲d̲j̲tār al-Ḥalabī (575/1180-vers 625-30/1228-33), important historien s̲h̲īʿite d’Alep, auteur surtout d’une Histoire universelle, Maʿādin al-d̲h̲ahab fī taʾrīk̲h̲ al-mulūk wa-l-k̲h̲ulafāʾ wa-d̲h̲awī l-rutab, que même les auteurs sunnites, qu’ils l’avouent ou non, n’ont pu se dispenser d’utiliser. D’importants extraits s’en trouvent conservés dans l’Histoire d’Ibn al-Furāt [ q.v.] et les Rawḍatayn d’Abū S̲h̲āma [ q.v.], portant sur les trois premiers quarts du VIe/XIIe siècle; elle a aussi été connue, entre autres, de ʿIzz al-dīn Ibn S̲h̲addād [ q…