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1. BegriffDer Begriff H. ist dem Lateinischen entlehnt (von hospitalitas, »Gastfreundschaft«) und in verschiedenen Abwandlungen in den europ. Sprachen nachzuweisen (dt. hopitalhûs, Spital, Spittel; franz. hôpital; engl.-span. hospital) [2]; [1]. Von Beginn an wurde damit die Doppelfunktion von Krankenversorgung und Zuständigkeit für alle Formen der Bedürftigkeit bezeichnet.Maike RotzollWolfgang Uwe Eckart2. MittelalterDie Entwicklung des H.-Wesens im westl. MA wird meist in engen Zusammenhang mit dem Prinzip der christl. caritas gestellt (Nächstenliebe). So wurde…

1. TerminologyThe term vermin (French  vermine, German  Ungeziefer) is attested since approximately 1300. The German term goes back to the 12th century, as the OHG root word  zebar became modern German  ziefer (animal). The German root may possibly have meant a sacrificial animal in the narrower sense, so that the double pejorative prefix  un- and  ge- might suggest animals not fit for sacrifice. Synonyms included  Geschmeiß (from MHG  smeiszen and  smîszen; modern Latin  cacare, “smear with dung”), which Martin Luther used figuratively in an anti-Jewish sense ( die Jüden …

1. Terminological historyThe word “organism” (from the Greek  órganon/Latin  organum, “implement”, “instrument [musical or surgical]”) first appeared in its Latin form in texts of the high Middle Ages. However, only two attestations of the term exist from before the mid-17th century, one from an alchemical context in the 11th century, the other from the context of church music in the 12th [7. 320]. The term “organism” as a derivative of “organic” and “organ,” both known since Greco-Roman antiquity as terms denoting the living structure of the body and its…

1. Concept The word “hospital” derives from “hospitality” (Latin  hospitalitas), a derivation found in various forms in a number of European languages (e.g. German hopitalhûs, Spital, Spittel; French hôpital; Spanish hospital; Italian  ospedale) [2]; [1]. From the outset, the concept reflected a double function of care for the sick and responsibility for all forms of need.Maike Rotzoll 2. Middle Ages The development of the hospital in the medieval west was for the most part closely associated with the principle of Christian caritas (Charity). From the early days of Christianity, congregation members were required to engage in “chari…

1. Europe 1.1. Renaissance 1.1.1. Medical Humanism and ReformationInfluenced by the Renaissance and Humanism, medicine, as part of the  studia humaniora from the 14th century, also undertook a philological and critical turn towards its ancient foundations and sources [1]; [2] (Humanism, medical). Knowledge in medical science was acquired by reading classical works now purged of real or supposed medieval and Arabic “corruptions” (Hippocrates, Celsus, Galen), but also – already – through the application of the principle of autopsía (“self-seeing,” i.e. direct obser…

1. Concept and theory 1.1. IntroductionParacelsism on the one hand denotes the theories in natural history, hermetic alchemy/chemistry, medicine, philosophy, and theology of the physician and naturalist Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim (called Paracelsus, 1493-1541) [2], and on the other the reception of those theories from the late 16th to early 18th centuries (see below, 2. and 3.) by a group of authors in various disciplines, most of them physicians sympathetic to alchemy and followers of heterodox forms of Protestantism…

1. Medicine 1.1. Humoral pathologyUntil the early 18th century, blood was thought of as the moist, well-tempered “sap that fills the blood vessels and is thought [by physicians] to consist of four particular humors: phlegm, yellow and black bile, and the blood proper” [1]. In the view of humoralism, the humors with their associated qualities (blood: warm, moist; yellow bile: warm, dry; phlegm: cold, moist; black bile: cold, dry) are produced by digestion (Latin coctio, literally “cooking”) of food; they are always present in whole blood in varying proportion. The organs extract the portions of the blood they need to nourish them. Thus blood acts as the mediator between sustenance and the organs; waste flows on and is eliminated through the gut and urinary tract in excrement and urine, throu…

1. DefinitionThe term medicalization goes back to the French medical historiography of the  Annales school [4]. It was first defined by the French historian Jean-Pierre Goubert [9. 170]. He understood medicalization as a long-term process that began in the second half of the 18th century, in the course of which physicians succeeded in imposing their medical services on broad strata of the population with the help of the state. This was a process that expanded the medical marketplace, in which one professional group wa…

1. Begriff und GrundlagenWährend die Iatroastrologie ebenso wie die Iatromagie ab dem 17. Jh. an Einfluss verlor, verstärkte sich nach dem Erscheinen von Paracelsus'…

1. Definition and basicsWhile the influence of iatroastrology, like that of iatromagic, waned after the 17th century, with the appearance of Paracelsus’ works beginning in 1560, the importance of chemistry as a cornerstone of the new concept of life increased (Paracelsism; Chemical sciences). The central assertion that all life processes are essentially chemical solidified into the intellectual system of iatrochemistry (from Greek  iatrós, “p…

1. Naturphilosophie 1.1. Abgrenzung zum MenschenDer Begriff des Tierischen wird in der Nz. häufig direkt oder indirekt mit dem des Menschlichen kontrastiert [10]. Anfänglich wurde er verwendet, um das Gebiet der philosophischen Anthropologie abzugrenzen (Mensch, Menschheit); erst später bezeichnete »T.« die Studienobjekte der Zoologie. Diese anthropozentrische Perspektive findet sich deutlich etwa in den ren…

1. Allgemein 1.1. Definition und frühe BegriffsgeschichteDer Begriff P. stammt aus dem Griechischen (von psych椃, ursprgl. ›Atem‹, ›Seele‹; d. h. ›Seelenkunde‹). Die moderne empirische Wissenschaft der P. begründete ihr weltweit erstes Forschungsinstitut 1879 in Leipzig. In philosophischer Perspektive setzte die europ. P. als Beschäftigung mit den Eigenschaften der Seele jedoch schon mit den Vorsokratikern im 5. Jh. v. Chr. ein.Der kroat. Humanist Marcus Marulus (Marulić) soll 1510/17 einen (verschollenen) Traktat Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae (›Seelenkunde …

1. Natural philosophy 1.1. Distinction from humanDirectly or indirectly, the concept of the animal was frequently contrasted with that of the human in the early modern period [10]. Initially, it was used to define the sphere of philosophical anthropology (Humanity). Only later did “animal” come to denote an object of zoological study (Zoology). This anthropocentric perspective is clearly seen, for instance, in Renaissance printed editions of medieval bestiaries, which present all known species of animals – from the real w…

1. Introduction and general history 1.1. Definition and early terminological historyThe word “psychology” comes from the Greek ( psychḗ, originally “breath,” “soul”; i.e. “lore of the soul”). The modern empirical science of psychology established its first research institute at Leipzig in 1879, but from a philosophical perspective, European psychology (as a study of the properties of the soul) began with the work of the Presocratic philosophers in the 5th century BCE.The Croatian Humanist Marcus Marulus (Marulić) is said to have written a treatise (now lost) entitled Psichio…