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[English Version] 1.  Giovanni (24.2.1463 Mirandola bei Modena – 17.11.1494 Florenz). Der Sohn des Grafen von Mirandola studierte seit 1477 Kirchenrecht, artes liberales, Philos. und Lit. v.a. in Bologna, Ferrara, Padua, Paris und Perugia. Neben Griech. lernte er auch Hebr. und Arab. Wiederholt besuchte er Florenz, wo er sich mit Lorenzo de' Medici und seinem Kreis anfreundete, bes. mit Marsilio Ficino, Angelo Poliziano (1454–1494) und Girolamo Benivieni (1453–1542). Nachdem er sich in wenigen Jahre…

[English Version] I. Universität 1. Die U.T. wurde 1477 im Verlauf der sog. »zweiten Gründungswelle« dt. U. durch Graf Eberhard im Bart als württembergische Landesuniversität im südlichen Teil des ehemals zweigeteilten Landes gegründet (päpstl. Privileg 1476, kaiserliche Bestätigung 1484). Zur materiellen Absicherung der Professuren verlegte der Graf acht der zehn Chorherrenpfründen und zwei Drittel der Einkünfte des Säkularkanonikerstifts Sindelfingen an die Pfarrkirche St. Georg von T., führte ab…

[English Version] von Auxerre (nach 841 – 2.5. wohl 908 Paris), Mönch des Klosters St. Germain in Auxerre, hier auch Nachfolger seines Lehrers Heiricus, ca.893 an der Erneuerung der Schule von Reims tätig, seit 900 Lehrer in Paris. Vf. mehr als 20 im MA viel gelesene, aber meist ungedr. gebliebene Werke: Komm. zu antiken und frühma. Grammatikern und Dichtern, zu Gen und Pss, zu Boet.cons. und Opuscula sacra sowie eine Meßerklärung. Ulrich Köpf Bibliography L'école carolingienne d'Auxerre, hg. von D. Iogna-Prat/C. Jeudy/G. Lobrichon, 1991.

[English Version] Speculum humanae salvationis, bedeutendstes und am weitesten verbreitetes typologisches, Texte und Bilder miteinander verbindendes Werk des Spät-MA. Es knüpft an den heilsgesch. Aufbau der Biblia pauperum (Armenbibel) an und erweitert ihn thematisch bes. um Szenen des Marienlebens und der Passion Jesu sowie durch Ausgestaltung der Texte zu Traktaten. Titel (S.h.s.) und Jahr (1324) der »nova compilatio« sind schon in frühen Hsn. des 14.Jh. bezeugt. Ob sie, wie lange angenommen, vo…

[English Version] . Als Summa (S.; Summae, später auch: Summula[e]) wird seit dem 12.Jh. die wiss. Lit. bez., in der das gesamte wichtige Wissen eines Sachgebiets knapp zusammengefaßt ist (Robert von Melun: singulorum brevis comprehensio). Dabei kann es sich um verschiedene Disziplinen handeln: S. grammaticae (grammaticalis), S. super Priscianum, S. dictaminis oder artis notariae, S. logicae (Summulae dialectices, logicales, logicae), S. de modis significandi, S. philosophiae, Summula philosophiae…

[German Version] In the 12th century, a scholarly work briefly summarizing the totality of important knowledge in a particular field (Robert of Melun: singulorum brevis comprehensio) came to be called a Summa (later also Summula). Various disciplines were represented: Summa grammaticae/grammaticalis; Summa super Priscianum; Summa dictaminis/artis notariae; Summa logicae ( Summulae dialectices/logicales/logicae); Summa de modis significandi; Summa philosophiae; Summula philosophiae naturalis; Summa de anima, etc. Compendia of civil and canon law were also called Summae…

[German Version] Mendicants Dispute, term for the controversies at the University of Paris about the status of the mendicants (Mendicant orders), who from 1217 (Dominicans) and 1219 (Franciscans) lived in Paris as students, preachers, and pastors, and who since the university strike from 1229 to 1231 also held chairs in the theological faculty (1229 Roland of Cremona OP, 1231 John of St. Giles OP, 1236 Alexander of Hales OFM). The growing competition with the mendicants, who were favored by the po…

[German Version] (Hospitallers), a lay brotherhood founded at the end of the 11th century in connection with the church of La-Motte-aux-Bois (since the 14th cent.: St.-Antoine-en-Viennois), which possessed the relics of the desert father Antonius. They cared for those ill with St. Anthony's fire (holy fire, ergot). The Antonites spread rapidly and were transformed in …

[German Version] Pallium, a circular stole worn on the shoulders over the mass robe, made of white wool decorated with black silk crosses, with a short strip with a black end hanging over the chest and the back (Vestments, Liturgical). It presumably developed from the sash worn by Roman officials in late imperial times, and from the early 6th century the pope has been entitled to wear this liturgical vestment. From the 9th century he bestowed it on archbishops, who, however, were allowed to wear i…

[German Version] (c. 1214/1220, England – c. 1292). After studying arts in Oxford and perhaps in Paris (M.A. c. 1236/1240), Bacon taught in the Paris faculty of arts until about 1247. It is uncertain whether he then returned to England, and where he entered the Franciscan order (probably before 1256). After theological studies (in Oxford?) he was again in Paris around 1257. ¶ Here, c. 1263, he found a patron in Cardinal Gui Foucois (Guy Foulques the Fat), later Pope Clement IV (1265–1268), to whom he sent several works on request (including the Opus maius, the Opus minus, and perhaps the Opus t…

[German Version] (1095/1100, near Novara, Lombardy – Jul 21/22, 1160, Paris). After studying in northern Italy and Reims, Peter came to Paris c. 1135 as an outsider; by 1145 he was already one of the most important teachers in the cathedral school. On Jul 28, 1159, he was consecrated bishop of Paris, but he was unable to distinguish himself in that office. In his years of teaching, he produced glosses (Glossa ordinaria) on the Psalms (PL 191, 55–1296) and the Pauline Epistles, also called the magna (or maior) glossatura (PL 191, 1297–1696; 192, 9–520), as well as four books of Sententiae (crit…

[German Version] I. Middle Ages Waldenses (Valdesi), supporters of the townsman Waldo from Lyon, made their first historical appearance in 1179 at the Third Lateran Council, where they vainly requested permission to preach freely. In 1180, Waldo and his companions ( fratres) committed themselves to an orthodox creed at a synod in Lyon and pledged to lead a life according to the counsels of perfection. By doing so, the community of the “Poor of Lyon” attained public visibility. In analogy to other religious movements of the 12th century…

[German Version] One of the central demands of the Wittenberg and Swiss Reformation was thorough theological education of all future clergy. In Lutheran territories, Reformed theological faculties in ¶ the existing universities served this function, but initially in Reformed territories such institutions were largely lacking. Only three existing comprehensive universities intermittently offered Reformed instruction: Heidelberg from 1559 to 1578 and from 1583 to 1662, Marburg between 1605 and 1624 and again after 1653, Frank…

[German Version] I. The Term – II. Assessment and Study – III. Definition – IV. Characteristics – V. Early, High, and Late Middle Ages I. The Term French moyen âge has been used for a historical period since 1572, English Middle Age(s) since 1611 and Middle Time(s) since 1612. The German word Mittelalter had already been used by the Swiss historian Aegidius Tschudi ( mittel alters) in 1538, but it did not reappear in this sense (in contrast to “middle age”) until 1786; at the beginning of the 19th century, it finally prevailed over the more common 18th-century expressions mittlere Zeit(e…

[German Version] (c. 1185, Hales, England – Aug 21, 1245, Paris). After studying the arts and theology, Alexander taught in the Parisian theological faculty from the early 1220s, but maintained close relations with home. In 1229, he moved with the striking Parisian professors and students to Angers and brought forward their demands to the Roman Curia in 1230/1231. When …

[German Version] (Valdez; died c. 1205/1218). The scanty tradition concerning Waldo permits only a few safe statements about him. A baptismal name ( Petrus) is first mentioned in the second half of the 14th century. A prosperous citizen of Lyon, around 1176/1177 he appears to have been converted to an apostolic life by the legend of Alexius or biblical texts translated into the vernacular. Whether he was attracted primarily by the ideal of poverty or a desire to preach is disputed. After making provision for his wife …

[German Version] Academic degrees came into existence in the context of medieval education. Even before universities were established, teachers were generally given the title Magister; while the usual title in the stronghold of legal studies at Bologna was Doctor, which also was often applied to the teachers of the Early Church ( Doctores ecclesiae ). At the universities, which arose c. 1200, the master's degree was the highest degree granted by all the faculties, with a distinction between someone who was merely qualified to teach and a Magister actu regens (a professor engaged in …

[German Version] The mendicant orders are religious communities in the West in which not only do the individual members live without personal possessions, but the community itself also forgoes ownership of property and regular income (Poverty). They sustain themselves on what they get from simple work, contributions, and begging. The mendicant orders originated in the early 13th century in conjunction with the religious poverty movement: the Dominicans, a clerical order of priests engaged in preac…

[German Version] (Éon d'Étoile; died after 1148), possibly of noble birth, was a charismatic hermit and itinerant preacher of little education. After several years of preaching in Brittany and Gascony, where he attracted many followers, he was arraigned before the Council of Reims in 1148 and condemned to seclusion in the monastery of St. Denis in Paris. It is unclear what led him to assert that he was God's son, the future judge of the living and dead. Ulrich Köpf Bibliography J.C. Cassard, “Eon d'Étoile, ermite et hérésiarque breton,” MSHAB 57, 1980, 171–198.

[German Version] (1129/1130 – Aug 6, 1195, Braunschweig), duke of Saxony and Bavaria, son of the Guelph Henry X the Proud, and Gertrud, daughter of Emperor Lothar III, cousin of Frederick Barbarossa. His second marriage was with Mathilde, daughter of King Henry II of England. Henry the Lion was a ruler with great self-confidence and a pronounced drive toward power and possessions. Conquests in the Slavic northeast, territorial expansion, and the founding of dioceses (Oldenburg/Lübeck, Ratzeburg, S…