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[German version] The Roman goddess R. traditionally appears in conjunction with a fig tree, the f icus Ruminalis, which provided food for the twins Romulus and Remus (Liv. 1,4,5). The goddess' sanctuary was said to be near to the tree. The ancient etymological connection between R. and ruma or rumis ('female breast'; Fest. 326, 332 f. L., Varro, Ling. 5,54), refers to the breast-like shape and milk-like juice of the nutritious fig [1. 112 f.]. For this reason, R. allegedly received sacrifices of milk (Varro, Rust. 2,11,5; Non. p. 167 f. M. = …

[German version] Roman phallic deity, whose name is also preserved as Mutinus Titinus [1. 425f.], and who was associated with the Greek Priapus (Varro Antiquitates rerum divinarum fr. 151a Cardauns). Pictorial representations of this deity do not exist. He is most probably not depicted on a denarius of Q. Titius Mutto (cf. RRC, p. 344-347). MT had a sanctuary in Rome …

[German version] According to Festus (116,2; 150,34), the Oscan form of Mars. The appearance of M. in Oscan dedicatory inscriptions (Vetter 196; [1. no. 177, 179]: 3rd/2nd cents. BC) and the Oscan roots of the Mamertini, important since the 4th cent. BC, seemed to support Festus [2. 155, 167, 172]; this led to the marginalization of Varro's postulate of the Sabine origin of M. (Varro, Ling. 5,73). The so-called Lapis Satricanus (AE 1979, 136), found in Satricum 50 km south-east of Rome, a dedicatory inscription Mamartei (‘for Mamars), is proof of the existence of a Latinized form at c. 500 B…

[German version] Roman goddess. The earliest literary evidence (Fest. 416 f. L. with [1. 2167]) mentions a statue of Stata Mater, which is said to have stood in the Forum Romanum until the early 1st cent. BC; the population of the city of Rome is supposed to have then carried the cult of the goddess into the …

[German version] Roman festival to avert mildew (Lat. robigo) on 25 April, at the 5th milestone on the via Claudia (Verrius Flaccus, InscrIt 13,2 p. 131; with differing topographies. Details: Ov. Fast. 4,901-942), with the sacrifice of a sheep and a dog by the flamen Quirinalis (Ov. Fast. 4,905-910; F lamines ) and (at least in the later period) ludi with equestrian competition…

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[German version] A modern term describing deities, primarily in Roman religion, whose role was limited …

[German version] With the derivation from Latin portus, 'harbour' (schol. Veronense in Verg. Aen. 5,241; Cic. Nat. D. 2,66), th…

[German version] On the Kalendae of each Roman month the pontifices ( pontifex ) announced in the Curia Calabra the date of the Nonae (Calendar B. 4.); on that date, in the course of the nonalia sacra (NS) , the rex sacrorum proclaimed on the Capitoline Arx the first festival of the month (Varro Ling. 6,27f.; [1. 210-214]). Varro regards the NS as a surviving feature of the time of the kings, when the rural population would come to Rome and gather before the rex to be given information about that month's festivals. Varro's use of the present tense ( edicit) indicates that he is referring to a conte…

[German version] The Roman goddess of fruit, Lat. pomum (Fest. 144,12 f. L.; Varro Fr. 181, 189 Cardauns), whose sanctuary ( pomonal) was situated outside Rome on the via Ostiensis in the ager Solonius (Fest. 296,15-17 L.; [1. 144 f.]). The Roman calendars do not record any festival for P.; movable festival days ( feriae conceptiuae) are probable [2. 199]. P. had a flamen minimus ( flamines ; Fest. 144,13 f. L.; CIL III 12732); the description minimus probably does not refer to a hypothetical subordinate status of the goddess, but reflects differentiation within the fl…

[German version] (also Rosaria). The Roman festival of the offering of roses to the dead. The Rosalia were a private parentatio (Parentalia), not a festival of public religion (they appear only in one late Roman calendar, which may not even refer to the traditional Rosalia: Philocalus, InscrIt 13,2 p. 247, for 23 May), but were sometimes celebrated in connection with the ruler cult (24-26 May: IPergamon no. 374). The connection between the Rosalia and the decoration of military standards with roses ( R. signorum) is unclear; ritual procedures involving the standards are record…

[German version] Roman personification of ‘prudence’, wrongly classified as ‘amorphous numen’ [1. 478]. The Sibyllini libri decreed the introduction of its cult in 217 BC (Liv. 22,9,8): its temple was pledged as the result of the Roman defeat at the hands of Hannibal at Lake Trasimenus by the Praetor T. Otacilius Crassus (Liv. 22,10,10; Ov. Fast. 6,241-248), and was dedicated on the Capitol, beside the temple of Venus Erycina, in 215 BC (Liv. 23,31,9). It was renewed by Aemilius [I 37] Scaurus ( cos. 115 BC: Cic. Nat. D. 2,61). The early Imperial Fasti record the 8th of June as natalis templi …

[German version] A. Origins and functions The name Neptunus may etymologically be derived from Sanskrit apām nápāt, ‘descendant of the waters’ [1; 2. 100-103]; N. was primarily a ‘land water god’ [3. 2515]. The Etruscan name Nethuns is linguistically related to N., but this god is probably the Etruscan version of an Italian N. whose function was expanded through Etruscan sea trade with the Greeks, linking up with the role of Greek Poseidon as the god of the sea, so that he became a maritime deity himself [4. 285f.]. Identified w…

[German version] Roman movable holiday ( Feriae ) to promote the growth of the seed, which Ovid discusses in relation to 24-26 January (Ov. Fast. 1,657-704) with reference to the Fordicidia of 15 April [1. 142 f.]. The festival included sacrifices to Tellus and Ceres on two days separated by seven days (Lydus, Mens. 3,9); it was celebrated following the first spring sowing within 91 days of the vernal equinox (Varro, Rust. 1,34) and before the second spring sowing in late January or …

[German version] Roman goddess, at times identified with Hestia (Cic. Nat. D. 2,67; Cic. Leg. 2,29); evidence for a possible Sabine origin: Varro Ling. 5,74; [1. 168-170]. The fact that the Roman cult of V. is very old is indicated by her archaic round temple as well as her connection to the rex sacrorum or the archaic ritual of the expulsion of purgamina - what was described as stercus ('garbage') - from V.'s temple on 15 July ( Quando stercum delatum fas: Varro Ling. 6,32; InscrIt 13,2,335 f.; 471; Fest. 466; [2. 320 f.]). The round temple at the edge of the Forum Romanum…

[German version] The Romans like other ancient Mediterranean peoples determined the placement of their boundary stones as well as the guardianship of their boundaries (lat. termini, sing. terminus) by calling on divine assistance and legal ordinances [1]. The latter were attributed to King Numa  (Fest. 505 L.). They may even have been included in the inscriptions of Rome's Lapis niger (6th cent. BC; [2]) and played an important role in Roman property law ([3. pp.110-124]; cf. Ov. fast. 2,660; [4. pp.98-122]). The importan…

[German version] Mythical king of the ancient Italic Laurentes (Verg. Aen. 7,48; 171) or of the Aborigines (Fest. 228,32-34 L.), son of Saturnus (Verg. Aen. 7,48) or of  Stercutius (Serv. Aen. 10,76). In Verg. Aen. 7,45-49 P. is the father of Faunus and grandfather of Latinus [1] (differently Verg. Aen. 12,164; cf. [1]). P. appears to Rhea Silvia in a dream (Ov. Fast. 3,37) and feeds Romulus and Remus (Plut. Quaest. Rom. 21). P. is turned into a woodpecker (Latin picus) by Circe (Verg. Aen. 7,189-192). Vergil motivates this transformation by P.'s rejection of Circe's affect…

[German version] Blacksmith under king Numa Pompilius who produced eleven copies of a bronze shield that has dropped from the sky during an epidemic in order to protect the shield from theft. M. was rewarded by being mentioned in the Carmen Saliare; the priesthood of the Salii kept the shields and used them in their dances (Dion. Hal. Ant. Rom. 2,71; Ov. Fast. 3,383-392; Plut. Numa 13; Min. Fel. 24,11; Paul Fest. 117,13 l.). M. is also believed to have created a bronze statue of the god Vertumnus …

[German version] A. Overview The modern category of sea gods has no direct ancient equivalent. This does not automatically make it unusable, but it is inadequate as an attempt to classify and systematize religious organisations in order to understand ancient polytheistic systems (Polytheism). Moreover, scholars tend to concentrate on Greek deities, while possible Roman equivalents are viewed as secondary and derived from Greek gods; therefore they are frequently denied independent discussion. Phillips, C. Robert III. (Bethlehem, Pennsylvania) [German version] B. Greek The mo…

[German version] Name of two Roman wine festivals, the V. Priora on 23 April (InscrIt 13,2,446 f.) and the V. Rustica on 19 August (InscrIt 13,2,497 f.). On the V. Priora people presumably made offerings to Jupiter (Iuppiter), the dedicatee of the festival, of new wine which went on sale at that time (Plin. HN 18,287; Ov. Fast. 4,863 f.; Plut. Quaest. Rom. 45). The propitiation of the weather on the V. Rustica was also addressed to Jupiter (Plin. HN. 18,284). A third Roman wine festival, the Medit…