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, son of ʿAlī and Fāṭima [ q.v.], claimant to the caliphate until he renounced the office in favour of Muʿāwiya b. Abī Sufyān, and, in the eyes of the S̲h̲īʿīs, the second imām . Early years. He was born in 3/624-5 (the month is uncertain; mid-Ramaḍān?) and given the name al-Ḥasan by Muḥammad, while his father wanted to call him Ḥarb; he lived with the Prophet for only seven years, but was nevertheless able later to recollect some of his phrases and actions (for example that Muḥammad threw back into the heap of ṣadaḳa dates one which he had already put into his mout…

S̲h̲īrawayh , Abū Ḏj̲aʿfar, vizier (?) of the ʿAbbāsid caliph al-Mahdī. Born at Nīs̲h̲āpūr of a Christian father, al-Fayḍ seems to have been one of the g̲h̲ilmān of Ibn al-Muḳaffaʿ [ q.v.]; he attracted attention by his talent and culture and, according to al-Ḏj̲ahs̲h̲iyārī ( Wuzarāʾ , 164-6), followed by Ibn K̲h̲allikān (vi, 25; tr. de Slane, iv, 358) and al-Fak̲h̲rī (ed. Derenbourg, 255-7; tr. Fagnan, 314-8; tr. C. E. J. Whitting, 183), he was appointed wazīr by al-Mahdī after the dismissal of Yaʿḳūb b. Dāwūd [ q.v.] in 166/782; he remained in office until the caliphate of al-Hā…

, a Yemenī chief of Kūfa who lost his life during the attempt made by al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAlī Ṭālib to seize power, at the end of 60/680. Hāniʾ possessed great influence among the Yemenīs of Kūfa who, represented by the Mad̲h̲ḥid̲j̲. Kinda and Hamdān, formed a numerous element in the town; an anecdote related in the Kāmil of al-Mubarrad and in the ʿIḳd gives further proof that it was an advantage to enjoy his favour. He had a thorough knowledge of the Ḳurʾān, and his name is mentioned in a list of readers belonging to the nobility ( al-as̲h̲rāf al-ḳurraʾ ). But the fact to whic…

, an ancient small town in the northern Ḥid̲j̲āz, near K̲h̲aybar and, according to Yāḳūt, two or three days’ journey from Medina. This place-name having disappeared, Ḥāfiẓ Wahba in his Ḏj̲azīrat al-ʿArab (Cairo 1956, 15) identified the ancient Fadak with the modern village of al-Ḥuwayyiṭ (pron. Ḥowēyaṭ), situated on the edge of the ḥarra of K̲h̲aybar. Inhabited, like K̲h̲aybar, by a colony of Jewish agriculturists, Fadak produced dates and cereals; handicrafts also flourished, with the weaving of blankets with palm-leaf borders. Fadak owes its fame in the history of Islam to…

, a locality near Mecca which is now called al-S̲h̲uhadaʾ “the Martyrs”. A very ancient tradition relates that certain Companions of the Prophet, in particular ʿAbd Allāh the son of the caliph ʿUmar, were buried there. It is in honour of this famous person, regarded as the local saint, that on 14 Ṣafar a ceremony is held there every year, and not because about a hundred ʿAlids and their partisans met their deaths at Fak̲h̲k̲h̲ in a battle ( yawm Fak̲h̲k̲h̲) on 8 Ḏh̲u ’l-Ḥid̲j̲d̲j̲a 169/11 June 786. ¶ The latter were, however, the “Martyrs”. The battle, which in the time of Snouck H…

, ʿAlid who led a revolt at Medina during the caliphate of al-Hādī ila ’l-haḳḳ [ q.v.] and was killed at Fak̲h̲k̲h̲ on 8 D̲h̲u ’l-Ḥid̲j̲d̲j̲a 169/11 June 786 (the date 170 suggested in some sources is incorrect, since al-Hādī died on 16 Rabīʿ I 170/15 September 786, and it is certain that the insurrection took place in the last months of the year). His father was the ʿAlī al-ʿĀbid (or al-K̲h̲ayr or al-Ag̲h̲arr), famous for his piety and his noble sentiments, who wished to share the fate of ʿAbd Allāh b. al-Ḥasan al-Mut̲h̲annā (= ʿAbd Allāh b. al-Ḥasan b. al-Ḥasan b. ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib [ q.v.]) and the…

, Mālik b. al-Ḥārit̲h̲ al-Nak̲h̲aʿī, warrior and political agitator of the time of the Caliph ʿUt̲h̲mān and supporter of ʿAlī. He was surnamed al-As̲h̲tar, “the man with inverted eyelids”, as the result of a wound received at the battle of the Yarmūk (15/636). He distinguished himself by his boldness in the campaign against the Byzantines and even dared to venture beyond Darb in enemy territory (see Caetani, Annali , index). He was one of the most persistent agitators against the Caliph ʿUt̲h̲mān and the ruling class of the period and defended the rights—or the claims—of the warriors to the f…

, al-Murrī , one of the governors and generals of the Umayyad caliph His̲h̲ām who in 105/724 appointed him governor of the Muslim possessions in India (Sind, and Multān in the south Pand̲j̲āb), conquered some years earlier in 92-4/711-3 by Muḥammad b. al-Ḳāsim. ʿUmar II had recognized D̲j̲ūs̲h̲aba b. D̲h̲ābir, the Indian king who had embraced Islam, as sovereign of these territories. Al-D̲j̲unayd evidently had doubts about This man’s loyalty for he attacked him, took him pris…

, in modern pronunciation Derna, a town on the northern coast of Cyrenaica which is to-day the second most important in the region after Beng̲h̲āzī. It is situated in a little plain along the banks of a wādī of the same name, bounded by the plateau of the al-D̲j̲abal al-Ak̲h̲ḍar, which forms a steep slope to the south and touches the sea to the east and west, but thanks to its never-failing springs it is rich in palms (8,000) and in orange and other fruit trees. Darna owes its origin to the Greeks who founded …

, Ḵh̲ārid̲j̲ite leader, opponent of Marwān b. Muḥammad ( — Marwān II). During the disturbances which followed the murder of the Caliph al-Walīd II, the K̲h̲ārid̲j̲ites resumed their campaign in Ḏj̲azīra and pushed forward into ʿIrāḳ, their leader at first being the Ḥarūrite Saʿīd b. Bahdal, and, after his death of the plague, al-Ḍaḥḥāk b. Ḳays al-S̲h̲aybānī, an adherent of the above-mentioned Ibn Bahdal. Several thousand fighters assembled under the standard of al-Ḍaḥḥāk; there were even among them Ṣufrites from S̲h̲ahrazūr. who, at that time, according to al-Balād̲h̲urī, Futūḥ …

, scholar of wide learning in the fields of Arabic language, poetry and adab , rhetoric, kalām [ q.v.] and of the early history of Islam; in addition he was an uṣūlī jurist [see uṣūl ] and an eminent writer of prose and poetry. Born at al-Madāʾīn on 1 D̲h̲u ’l-Ḥid̲j̲d̲j̲a 586/30 December 1190, he died at Bag̲h̲dād in 655/1257 or 656/1258, i.e., either immediately before or immediately after the capture of the city by the Mongols (20 Muḥarram 656/28 January 1258); since Ibn al-Fuwaṭī states that he was able to escape the massacre by the invaders by taking refuge in the house of the wazīr Ibn al-ʿAlḳ…

, sulaymān , contemporary Tripolitanian Ibāḍī scholar and politician, who inspired the Arabs of his country in their struggle against Italy. He belonged to an old and influential Berber family of the D̲j̲abal Nafūsa (with branches at D̲j̲ādo, Kābaō and Ḏj̲erba, where there is a private bārūniyya library) and was the son of ʿAbd Allāh al-Bārūnī, the theologian, jurist and poet, who taught at the zāwiya of al-Bak̲h̲ābk̲h̲a, near Yefren. Sulaymān was suspected by the Ottoman government ¶ of nurturing separatist ideas and plotting the founding of an Ibāḍite imāmate. Proceedi…

, cousin and son-in-law of Muḥammad, and fourth caliph, was one of the first to believe in Muḥammad’s mission. Whether he was the second after Ḵh̲adīd̲j̲a. or the third after Ḵh̲adīd̲j̲a and Abū Bakr, was much disputed between S̲h̲īʿites and Sunnīs. He was at that time aged 10 or 11 at most, and Muḥammad had taken him into his own household to relieve the boy’s father Abū Ṭālib, who had fallen into poverty. One narrative, which is open to criticism on several counts, represents ʿAlī as having oc…

, Of all the ḥarras dealt with in the preceding article, the one that stretches through the gardens of Medina on the north-eastern side of the town, known as the Ḥarrat Wāḳim , became, thanks to a famous battle in 63/683, al-Ḥarra par excellence. The situation in Medina was seriously disturbed some time after the accession to the throne of Muʿāwiya’s soa Yazīd. It led to a rebellion provoked by the indignation felt by men of piety at Yazīd’s scandalous conduct and the conviction that it was impossible to obey an imām of such a type. Beneath the religious aspects …

b. al-ḥakam , Abū Marwān, an Umayyad prince, son of the Caliph, Marwān [ q.v.] and of Ḳuṭayya bint Bis̲h̲r (of the Banū D̲j̲aʿfar b. Kilāb, thus a Ḳaysite). He took part in the battle of Mard̲j̲ Rāhiṭ (65/684) and there killed a Kilāb chief. After his father’s accession to the Caliphate he followed him at the time of his expedition to Egypt, for the sources tell us that when in 65/684 Marwān had regained this province for the Umayyads, taking it from Ibn al-Zubayr [ q.v.] who had seized it in S̲h̲aʿbān 64/March-April 684, and had put his son, ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz [ q.v.] in charge of the Prayer and the …

, an oasis at the head of the Wādī Sirḥān which runs from south-east to north-west, linking central Arabia on one side and the mountains of Ḥawrān and Syria on the other; it is thus situated on the most direct route between Medina and Damascus, being about 15 days’ journey on foot from the former and about 7 days or rather more from the latter. The oasis is in a g̲h̲āʾiṭ “depression” or k̲h̲abt “vast low-lying area”, the length of which, according to Yāḳūt, is 5 parasangs or, in modern terms, according to Ḥāfiẓ Wahba, 3 mil…

ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Murādī , murderer of the caliph ʿAlī in 40/661. Three K̲h̲ārid̲j̲īs, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. Muld̲j̲am, considered as belonging to Kinda, al-Burak b. ʿAbd Allāh and ʿAmr b. Bakr al-Tamīmī, having met at Mecca, had long discussions, after the end of the Pilgrimage ceremonies, on the deplorable situation into which the Muslims had fallen because of ʿAlī, Muʿāwiya and ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ, whom they regarded as being in error; spurred by an ardent desire to avenge their companions massacred at al-Nahrawān [ q.v.], they swore an oath to kill these three persons. Each of them…

, Companion of the Prophet, who conquered Sūḳ al-Ahwāz, took part in the siege of “the House” and became a K̲h̲ārid̲j̲ī. Although there is no source which gives the date of his conversion, it can be deduced that it took place at a fairly early date from the fact that he was among the Muslims who swore obedience to the Prophet “under the tree” (6/628) at al-Ḥudaybiya [ q.v.]. The name of Ḥurḳūṣ is mentioned for the first time in the works of the Arab historians in 17/638: as the Persian general al-Hurmuzān [ q.v.], the defender of al-Ahwāz, was behaving in a threatening ¶ way in spite of a pact whi…

, daughter of ʿUmar b. al-K̲h̲aṭṭāb and wife of the Prophet, is said to have been born five years before Muḥammad’s mission, while the Ḳurays̲h̲ were rebuilding the Kaʿba. Her mother was Zaynab bint Maẓʿūn, the sister of the famous ʿUt̲h̲mān b. Maẓʿūn [ q.v.]. Married first to the Ḳurays̲h̲ī K̲h̲umays b. Ḥud̲h̲āfa al-Sahmī and widowed ¶ while still childless (her husband, a Badrī, died at Medina on the return from Badr), she was offered by her father in marriage to Abū Bakr and to ʿUt̲h̲mān b. ʿAffān; the latter refused, explaining that he did not wa…

( ḥarawrāʾ , according to Yāḳūt, ii, 246, but wrongly), a locality, village or district ( kūra ) near al-Kūfa. During the pre-Islamic period and in the first century of Islam at least, Ḥarūrāʾ stood on the banks of the Euphrates or one of its canals, for a line of al-Aʿs̲h̲ā (al-Ṭabarī, ii, 730) speaks of “ s̲h̲aṭṭ Ḥarūra ”, but in the 3rd/9th century it was described as being in the desert ( ṣaḥrāʾ ) by the traditionist Ibn Dīzīl al-Hamdānī (d. 283/896; see Ibn Abi ’l-Ḥadīd, i, 215); the hydrographic system of the region had thus probably undergone a transformation. Of no importance from the po…