Search

The fish became a symbol of Christ toward the end of the second century by way of the Gk. noun ὶχθύς ( ichthys, “fish”), which was used as an acrostic for Iēsous Christos, Theou Huios, Sōtēr (Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior), as well as on the basis of Luke 5:1–11 (cf. Matt. 13:47), Matt. 14:13–21 and parallels, and John 21. In dependence on rabbinic exegesis (as yet unelucidated), the church fathers developed the following train of thought: believers as fish, Christ as fisherman, Christ as fish. Clement of Alexandria (d. ca. 215; see Paed.  3) and Tertullian (d. ca. 225; see De ba…

Choir stalls are seats in cathedrals or monastery chapels that are reserved for participants in choral worship (Hours, Canonical). They are usually arranged lengthwise in the choir in two rows. Their arrangement reflects the monastic rule and the hierarchical principle of the separation of priests and people. The rows of seats, with sidewalls, are either open or separated. On the underside the seats have supports (misericordia) to lean on when standing. From the Romanesque period (Middle Ages 1), the backs (dorsalia), canopies, misericordia, armrests, and sides were richly an…

[German Version] (Sep 1, 1757 Tschepplau [Krzepielów] – May 13, 1843, Berlin), a prominent figure in the Prussian revival movement and an important forerunner of the Inland Mission. Kottwitz, born into an ancient Silesian noble family, initially felt drawn to the Freemasons and Rosicrucians. In Hamburg, where he studied poor relief intensively, he also came to know M. Claudius. In 1783 he married Countess Charlotte Hélène von Zedlitz; they had five children, although the marriage could not be call…

[German Version] (Jun 21, 1841, Schlüsselburg – Oct 4, 1913, Berlin), “dogmatician of the Community movement” and the Holiness movement. Jellinghaus went as a missionary to India for the Goßner Mission in 1866, became pastor in Rädnitz and Brandenburg in 1873, and in Gütergotz near Potsdam in 1881. Won over to the Holiness movement by W.R. Smith in Oxford (1874), Jellinghaus founded the first German-language Bible school for the religious education of church members in Gütergotz. He moved it to Li…

[German Version] (Jan 26, 1801, Hannover-Münden – Feb 7, 1886, Wrocław/Breslau), canonist, in 1824–1827 professor in Rostock and from 1827 in Breslau; in 1830 he participated in the founding of the Evangelical-Lutheran Church in Prussia (Old Lutherans) and from 1841 was director of the high consistory of the Old Lutheran church. Huschke enjoyed considerable respect as a legal historian and, like J.G. Scheibel and H. Steffens, was influenced by the Awakening (Revival movement), especially J. v. Oer…

[German Version] (Oct 22, 1805, Güglingen, Württemberg – Sep 1, 1879, Stuttgart). Son of an old aristocratic family, Kapff attended the seminaries in Maulbronn and Tübingen (II), where he became friendly with L. and W. Hofacker; he was a lecturer from 1830 to 1833. This leading representative of conservative Württemberg Pietism was appointed pastor of the Brethren congregation in Korntal in 1833, dean in Münsingen in 1843 and in Herrenberg in 1847. From 1850, Kapff was general superintendent in Re…

[German Version] Korntal, a German town in the district of Ludwigsburg (Baden-Württemberg) with 17,200 inhabitants; it merged with Münchingen in 1975. In response to the “emigration fever” of the Pietists (Pietism), G. Hoffmann advised King William I of Württemberg to allow them to establish their own settlements. The king granted permission in a privilege issued on Oct 1, 1818, whereupon Hoffmann purchased the feudal estate of Korntal in 1819. The new community, which belonged to the Augsburg Con…

[German Version] (Jul 12, 1806, Berlin – Jun 27, 1878, Dünow, Pomerania), was an author of church hymns marked by the Awakening movement (Revival/Revival movements) and a supporter of missions (including Jewish missions). He became pastor in Wusterwitz, Pomerania, in 1834 and succeeded J. Goßner at the Bethlehem Church in Berlin in 1850. Knak shaped the missionary festivals as “spiritual folk festivals” and represented a strict Lutheran confessionalism in the dispute with the Protestantenverein. Peter Maser Bibliography W. v. Kloeden, BBKL IV, 1992, 109–112 (bibl.).

[German Version] (Dec 12, 1784, Duisburg – May 15, 1845, Erlangen). Following studies in Duisburg, where he came under the influence of F. Krummacher and S. Collenbusch, Krafft was appointed pastor in Weeze (near Kleve) in 1808 and pastor of the Evangelical-Reformed congregation in Erlangen in 1817, where he became associate professor one year later. From 1821 onward, Krafft turned into a Bible-believing supernaturalist (Naturalism), blend-¶ ing the revival movement (Revival/Revival Movements) of the Rhineland and the Allgäu, Pietistic traditions, and elements…

[German Version] (Nov 11, 1764, Riga – Dec 25, 1824, Karasubasar, Crimea). The highly talented but eccentric daughter of the aristocratic Baltic family von Vietinghoff married the Russian diplomat Konstantin von Krüdener in 1782. After his death, Krüdener experienced a conversion in 1804 under the influence of Herrnhut (Bohemian and Moravian Brethren) and J. Jung-Stilling. Her prophetic-ecstatic sense of mission brought her into contact with Tsar Alexander I and his program for the religious and p…

[German Version] 1. Friedrich Adolf (Jul 13, 1767, Tecklenburg – Apr 4, 1845, Bremen), Reformed theologian. After working as a schoolteacher in Westphalia, Krummacher became professor of rhetoric in Duisburg in 1800, pastor in Kettwig an der Ruhr in 1807, general superintendent of Anhalt-Bernburg in 1812, and pastor in Bremen in 1824. Close to the revival movement (Revival/Revival movements), and a supporter of the union of churches (Unions, Church: I), Krummacher was active above all as a religious author ( Parabeln, 81848). Peter Maser Bibliography A.W. Möller, Friedrich Adolf K…

Since the tenth century, the ecclesia cathedralis has been the bishop’s church, as it still is in France, Spain, England, and Sweden. The term “cathedral” (Gk. kathedra; Lat. cathedra) originally meant “seat,” then “teaching chair [of the bishop].” In the Eastern Orthodox Church the cathedral is the main church of a city, though the term is not used in the Russian Orthodox Church. In Germany, Dom (from Lat. domus ecclesiae, “house of the Christian community”) or Mu¬nster (cf. Eng. “minster”) is often used instead of the cognate Kathedrale. In the Roman Catholic Church the appr…

The phrase “Christian art” may encompass any of the following: art (for the purposes of this article, inclusive of architecture) produced by Christians, art produced for Christians, or art with themes or uses that may be identified as Christian. Different historical periods saw various combinations of the above. In the earliest centuries of Christianity, art was produced for Christians but not necessarily by Christians or on distinctly Christian themes (which had not yet appeared); in the Middle…