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Devotional images are cultic objects that believers piously venerate in holy places and from which, as representations of the saints (DH 1823), they expect miracles and salvation (Piety). Pilgrimages to devotional images sprang up besides pilgrimages to places of remembrance, graves, and relics of saints. Veneration of Mary, which developed from the 12th century and was promoted by the orders and later by the Counter-Reformation, especially the Jesuits, greatly increased pilgrimages to devotional images, since Mary was not a martyr, and there were no bodily relics of Mary. Devotio…

1. Historical Aspects 1.1. General 1.1.1. To present a history of the popes, church historians must pay particular attention to the distinction between specific historical situations and a presumed logical development (Philosophy of History). Are we to understand the papacy as a divine institution and its history as the entelechy of this nature? Or are we to deal with it as a historical phenomenon with a place in history that we cannot differentiate in principle from that of any other? Even if we ado…

The Donation of Constantine (Constitutum or Donatio Constantini) was a document forged sometime between roughly a.d. 750 and 850, probably with the participation of the Roman clergy. It is first attested in the False Decretals (ca. 850, attributed to Isidore of Seville), then in many versions and MSS. It is linked to a fifth-century story involving Pope Sylvester I (314–35) and Emperor Constantine (306–37). According to the story, Constantine was healed of leprosy and, in gratitude, became a Christian and gave the Roman church …

Altötting, Bavaria, is an important site of pilgrimage in honor of Mary. The town, which has a chapel going back to the eighth century, has long been a favorite resort of the nobility. After reports of miracles in about 1489, the pilgrimage developed under the patronage of the dukes of Bavaria, attracting travelers from Bohemia, South Tirol, and Italy as well as Bavaria. The Reformation and Enlightenment, however, threatened to end it. P. Canisius (1521–97), M. Eisengrein (1535–78), and, later, J. M. Sailer gave it fresh impetus. Albert V (1550–79) did much to promo…

1. Term There are monasteries not only in Christianity but also in Buddhism, Taoism, Jainism, and Islamic Sufism. The monastery separates monks and nuns from the world (Monasticism). After they have taken their vows, it opens up for them an ongoing, secluded monastic life of either contemplation or action within the rules of the order, the aim being a life that is holy and well-pleasing to God in fulfillment of the so-called counsels of perfection, or evangelical counsels (i.e., poverty, chastity, and obedience). 2. Development In the early church anchorites (from Gk. anachōreō, “s…

The Catechismus Romanus is the authoritative catechetical response of the Council of Trent (1545–63) to the main catechisms of the Reformers (G. J. Bellinger). It was planned in the first sessions of Trent but could not be completed while the council was meeting. The council thus gave the task, along with its preparatory labors, to Pope Pius IV (1559–65), who entrusted the work in 1564 to a commission of former council members under the presidency of his nephew Carlo Borromeo (1538–84). After various revisions the first edition came out in September/October 1566 in Rome. It bore the title Ca…

The discalced friars are religious orders whose members wear nothing on their feet but sandals (Franciscans) or who go totally barefoot (Carmelites). Biblical reasons and precedents include poverty (Isa. 20:2–4), reverence (Exod. 3:5; Josh. 5:15), and penitence (2 Sam. 15:30). The underlying idea is that in the spirit of discipleship of Jesus, the discalced friars observe a rule Jesus once gave prohibiting the use of shoes (see Matt. 10:10). Observants, Capuchins, Camaldolese, Servites, and Passionists are some of the orders of male religious involved. Women’s o…

The stations of the cross (a term coined by William Wey in 1472) are an ancient form of devotion involving the treading and contemplating of Christ’s way of suffering. Usually today there are 14 stations. They are based on the gospels (Gospel), with only the Veronica station being legendary. The progress is from Pilate’s house (the condemnation of Jesus) to the entombment. In more recent discussion a 15th station is the goal (the resurrection). The starting point is the Good Friday liturgy and procession in Jerusalem, which goes back to the fourth century. The develop…